Air Pollution-Types and Sources

by

Dr. Badar Ghauri Director

Space & Atmospheric Research Dte.
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Air Pollution
The presence of contaminants in air to such a degree that adversely affects our health,

property, agriculture, biodiversity, climate and

other uses of air as resource

WHY CARE ABOUT AIR POLLUTION?

Human health impacts. Highest risk: lead, fine particles. Other pollutants of concern: ozone, airborne toxics. Other environmental externalities and concerns.

Damage to natural and physical capital, amenity losses, contribution to climate change.
Policy development, prioritization of management action and project siting

Natural

Man-Made

Volume source of pollution is a three-dimensional source of pollutant emissions. Essentially, it is an area source with a third dimension. Examples of a volume source of pollution are:
Dust emissions from the wind erosion of uncovered gravel piles, sand piles, limestone piles, coal piles, etc. Fugitive gaseous emissions from pipe flanges, packed valve seals, gas compressor seals, control valve seals, piping and vessel seals within industrial facilities such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants. Buildings, containing air pollutant emission sources, with no singular emission vent (i.e., buildings with multiple roof vents or multiple open windows).

Tanks Modeling

Area sources are sources of pollution which emit a substance or radiation from a specified area. For example, area sources of air pollution are air pollutant emission sources which operate within a certain locality. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has categorized 70 different categories of air pollution area source. Locomotives operating on certain linear tracks are examples of a line source, whereas locomotives operating within a railyard are an example of an area source of pollution.

Other area sources of air pollution are:

Multiple flue gas stacks within a single industrial plant Open burning and forest fires Evaporation losses from large spills of volatile liquids

Oil Spill

Forest Fire

Industrial Plant

Point source of pollution is a single identifiable localized source of air, water, thermal, noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics and chemistry point sources except that their emissions have been labeled
Water pollution from an oil refinery wastewater discharge outlet Noise pollution from a jet engine Disruptive seismic vibration from a localized seismic study Light pollution from an intrusive street light Thermal pollution from an industrial process outfall Radio emissions from an interference-producing electrical device

Line source is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (onedimensional) geometry. The most prominent linear sources are roadway air pollution, aircraft air emissions, roadway noise, certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, and electromagnetic antennas. While point sources of pollution were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for highways and airports began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the computer models required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available.

Parameters Monitored

Traditional Criteria Pollutants SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM (10 and 2.5) and lead Lead receives little attention now Recent focus is on O3 and PM2.5

Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)/Air Toxics Benzene, Formaldehyde, etc.

Non-traditional Acid Rain Secondary Pollutants SO4, NO3, O3 Meteorological Parameters Wind speed, wind direction, horizontal turbulence, vertical turbulence, temperature, temperature profile, solar radiation and precipitation
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Knowing is first step?

Without monitoring it is not possible to implement policy

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Air Monitoring Network Obj:

Determine trends - is the air pollution control

program working? Assess environmental risk - how bad is the problem? Corroborate the emission inventories Validate the models - how good are the model predictions? Establishment of Ambient Air Quality Standards Determine whether or not a National Standards/International has been exceeded
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Air Pollutants Monitoring

Monitoring Air Pathway Analysis
Collect and review information

Conduct monitoring
Routine operation Quality control Field documentation

Develop Monitoring plan

Select monitoring constituents Specify meteorological monitoring Design network Select monitoring methods/ equipment and monitoring site Develop sampling and analysis

Summarize/ Evaluate results

Data review and Validation Data summaries Consider monitoring uncertainties Dispersion modeling applications
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Cost of Air Monitoring

Capital purchase of analyzers, samplers, site selection laboratory infrastructure. Equipment service, maintenance

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Main National Policies to Improve Air Quality

Ambient air quality standards Protect peoples health Fuel quality standards Sulfur reduction lowers SOx emissions Lead removal stops lead emissions, enables emission control technology.

Unleaded gasoline and ultra-low sulfur fuels allow for advanced

PM and NOx control. Vehicle emission standards New vehicle emissions standards can lead to the use of emission control technologies (e.g. for 2-stoke motorcycles). Better to have standards that can be achieved than stringent standards that are not enforced.
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Role of Urban Transport

Important contributor to air pollution.

Lead from gasoline- a problem of the past as leaded gasoline has been phased out.

Fine and ultra fine particles in vehicle exhaust present concern. Ozone precursors (HC and NOx) in vehicle exhaust emerging problem for the future. Current reality Old polluting fleets and low replacement rates. Fuel adulteration, poor quality and vehicle maintenance culture. Weak administrative capacity to regulate and monitor. Future challenge Rising income and motorization will increase pollution.
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Air Pollution Components

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Particulate Matter
Very small particles of soot, dust, or other

matter, including tiny droplets of liquids

PM10 - particles with diameters less than or equal to 10 micrometers

PM2.5 - particles with diameters less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers

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Particulate Matter
Where Does It Come From?

Diesel engines Power plants Industries Windblown dust Wood stoves Pollen Other sources
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Particulate Matter
What are the health effects?
Breathing problems due to damage and irritation to the lungs Aggravation of asthma, lung, or heart disease in people who already have these problems Chronic bronchitis Irritation of eyes, throat, skin, & nose Especially children, elderly, people with chronic respiratory problem

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Particulate Matter
What are the environmental effects?

Damage to crops Decreased visibility (regional haze) Damage to buildings and statues

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Aerosols and Hydrological Cycle Increased aerosols

Weak Hydrological Cycle

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Indirect Effect
More Aerosols More Cloud Droplets More Sunlight Will Be Reflected.

Net Result: Reduction In Solar Radiation at the Surface

Last Longer Clouds and Cooling

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Carbon Monoxide
What is it?
A colorless, odorless gas.

Produced when something is burned incompletely or in a closed-in area

Toxic to all humans and animals.

Most commonly inhaled poisonous substance

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Carbon Monoxide
Where can it be formed? Incorrectly vented furnaces Gas water heaters Gas stoves and clothes dryers Fireplaces that are blocked by debris Non-electric space heaters Charcoal grills used inside as heaters Automobiles idling in closed garages
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Carbon Oxides

Effects

CO binds to hemoglobin in place of oxygen Affinity for CO ~ 200x higher than for O2 Continued exposure can lead to Impairment of vision Reduced manual dexterity Poor learning ability Difficulty performing complex tasks Greater risk of heart attacks in people with certain forms of heart disease (e.g. angina)

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Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Sources Principally NO2 Highly reactive reddish-brown gas Play a major role in the formation of ozone, PM, haze and acid rain Important component of photochemical smog Forms from FF combustion at high temperatures Mobile Automobiles Stationary Power plants, home heaters, gas stoves Formation could be controlled by using pure oxygen for combustion (impractical and dangerous) Formation reduced by low-temperature combustion

33

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Effects Strong oxidizing agent Reacts readily in air to form nitric acid and nitrates Health Irritate lungs and lower resistance to respiratory infections Lung damage Environment Impair plant growth Damage plant foliage Contribute to acid rain - Leaching of minerals from soil - Acidification of lakes and waterways Contribute to eutrophication of lakes and waterways
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Sulfur Dioxide
A gaseous compound made up of sulfur and oxygen It is a major component of acid rain It is very smelly

Where does it come from? It comes from the burning of coal and oil. Power plants and industries Coal-burning stoves Refineries

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SO2 -What are the health effects?

SO2 causes lung disease SO2 can cause eye irritation and burning of the skin Other Environmental effects;

Impair plant growth Damage plant foliage Contribute to acid rain - Leaching of minerals from soil - Acidification of lakes and waterways
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Typical SO2 Sources

Source Category
Transportation Fuel combustion in stationary sources Pulp and Paper Calcium carbide Sulfuric acid plants Claus sulfur plants Coking

% of Total
2.89 76.52 0.22 0.01 1.37 2.53 1.37
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Typical SO2 Sources

Source Category
Petroleum refining Fluid catalytic cracking Thermal catalytic cracking Nonferrous metals Copper

Table Contd

% of Total
1.02 0.01

10.31

Zinc and Lead

Solid wastes disposal Agricultural burning

2.60
0.29 0.29

Total

100.00

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Typical H-C Sources

Source Category
Transportation (total) Highway Non-highway

% of Total
37.92 32.89 5.034

Stationary fuel combustion (total)

Electric utilities Other Industrial processes (total) Chemicals Petroleum refining

5.369
0.336 5.034 11.07 5.369 2.685 0.671

Metals
Others

2.349

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Typical H-C Sources

Table Contd

Source Category
Solid waste (total)
Miscellaneous (total) Forest wildfires

% of Total
3.02
42.62 1.678

Forest managed burning

Agricultural burning Organic solvents

0.671
0.336 27.18

Oil and gas production and marketing

Total

12.42 100.00
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Ozone
Where can it be found?
Stratosphere - protects us from UV rays of the

sun good ozone Troposphere - ground-level ozone - the air we breathe - bad ozone

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Ground-level Ozone
Where do the pollutants that form ground-level ozone come from?
Air emissions from industry
Motor vehicle exhaust Gasoline vapors

Chemical solvents

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Ozone (O3)
Effects (Primary constituent of photochemical smog)

Health

Respiratory inflammation Reduction of lung function Chest pain, coughing, nausea, pulmonary congestion Permanent lung damage from repeated exposure Impair plant growth Damage plant foliage

Environment

Ozone causes several billion dollars in agricultural crop loss each year
Damage to forest ecosystems
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VOCs
Sources Gasoline vapors (gas tanks, gas cans)

Chemical solvents (chemical plants, factories, refineries, commercial products)

Fossil fuel combustion (motor vehicles)

Secondary pollutant (ground-level ozone) formed from NOx and volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in

the presence of heat and sunlight

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Sinks for Selected Pollutants

CO
(0.09-2.7 YEARS)

Uptake by Soil and Conversion to CO2 by

microbes
Dissolve in Ocean, Take-up by plants Precipitation Scavenging then to Sulphate

CO2
(2-10 YEARS)

SO2
(20 MIN-7 DAYS)

NOX
(3-5 DAYS)

H-Cs
(1.5-2 YEARS METHANE)

Particle Precipitation Scavenging then to Nitrate

Oxidized to CO2, Absorption on Soil then

OZONE
(2HRS-3 DAYS)

Microbial Degradation, Photochemical Degradation

Photochemical Reaction in Atmosphere

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Factors Affecting Distribution of Pollutants

Precipitation Humidity + Cleans Air Dissolve Many Pollutants

Fog
Sunshine Wind Velocity

+
+ + + + -

Remain Same
Sunshine Initiate the Oxidation

Less Pollution Near The Source But Faster & Wider Distribution Greater Contamination Lighter Wind; Less Dispersion Dilution Of Contamination

Wind Direction (From Source) Barometric Pressure Height Of Emitting Source

Mountains, Hills

Break Force Of Wind

Distance From Source

Remain Same
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Air Quality Monitoring Mobile Lab

Inner View of Mobile Lab.

Feasibility Study for Development of Transport Pollution Control Plan for Karachi Metropolis (CDGK)
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Study Sites in Metropolitan Karachi

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The Main Objectives of the Project

To establish the Baseline Data on the Status of Ambient Air, Water, Noise and Soil Pollution in Karachi To assess the Impact of Pollution Generated by Operation of Vehicular Traffic on physical, living and social Environment To propose remedial measures and course of action to control ambient pollution To prepare a feasibility study report on transport control plan dealing with issues related to fuel, vehicles & their operators for providing clean environment
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Methodology

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Monitoring, Sampling & Analysis

Comprehensive survey at 26 traffic congestion points to record the current level of air pollutants, noise and traffic density. Analyze soil, ground & waste water, growth of trees & loss of vegetation, decoloration of buildings, cultural heritage and other structures Analyze the blood samples, audiometry, of highly exposed individuals to vehicular operations Analyze the type of vehicles, their tuning effects and fuel quality contributing to environmental pollution Conduct interviews of drivers, vehicle operators & owners, policemen, hawkers and beggars etc Build a transportation model based on the collected information Propose remedial measures for reduction in environmental degradation
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Corridors for Pollution Modeling

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Findings of the Study

70 Contd

Air Quality on Traffic Corridors

Average Levels Observed Average levels on city intersections SO2 63mg/m3 22 ppb NOx 235mg/m3 115 ppb CO 8 ppm PM10 242 mg/m3 CO2 334 ppm O3 18 ppb Noise dB(A) 78

World Bank
-WHO

150 mg/m3 73 ppb 24-hourly

-50mg/m3 24 ppb Yrly Avg

--

230 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 (SPM)

--

70

-<200 mg/m3 70 ppb (24-hrly)

9 ppm (10,000mg/m3)

--

(0.11 )

NEQS Pakistan

--

--

--

85

Raised levels of pollutants on major transport corridors range between 10-40 ppb SO2 (140 ppb US EPA), 20-241 ppb NOx (50 ppb annual USEPA), 2-17 ppm CO (9 ppm 8-hourly avg USEPA), 160-616 ppm CO2, 40-490 mg/m3 PM10 (150 mg/m3 USEPA ), 5-47 ppb O3 (80 ppb 8hourly avg USEPA), 7-79 mg/m3 Toluene and 58-99 dB(A) Noise (85 dB(A) NEQS)

71 Contd

24 Hourly Average Levels of Pollutants at Major Road Intersections in Karachi

SO2
ppb

NOx

ppb

CO
ppm

CO2 ppm
334

PM10
mg/m3

O3
ppb

Noise
dB(A)

22

115

242

18

78

WHO or World Bank Standards

53 73
(150 mg/m3)

(150 mg/m3)

--

120

--

85

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Pollution Load
Vehicular emissions from Gasoline operated vehicles during 2004-2005
Air Pollutants from use of gasoline CO2 HC SO2 NOx Daily Emissions (Tons) 2106.48 11.397 0.424 8.096 Yearly Emissions (Tons)

768865.2 4159.905 154.76 2955.04

PM10
Total Emission

1.872
2128.269

683.28
776818.2

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Pollution Load
Vehicular emissions from Diesel operated vehicles during 2004-2005
Air Pollutants from use of diesel Daily Emissions (Tons) Yearly Emissions (Tons)

CO2
HC SO2 NOx CO PM10 Total Emission

5585.12
5.418 27.717 22.924 90.654 5.002 5736.835

2038569
1977.57 10116.71 8367.26 33088.71 1825.73 2093945
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Share of On-Road Vehicles in Karachi during 2005

Tractors, 0.30% Trucks, 1.45% Bus/Mini, 1.43% Vans/Pickup, 5.10%

Taxies, 3%

Rickshaw , 2.76% M/Cycle, 38%

Car/Jeep, 47.62%

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Share of Pollutant Emissions based on Petrol Consumption during 2005

CO 21% CO2 7%

PM 6%

HCs 38%

NOx 27%

SO2 1%

CO2

HCs

SO2

NOx

PM

CO

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Share of Pollutant Emissions based on Diesel Consumption during 2005

CO2 3% HCs 3%

SO2 23%

CO 54%

PM 3%
CO2 HCs SO2 NOx PM

NOx 14%

CO

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Project Benefits
Improvement of the road environment & performance of vehicles in operation

Enhancement in the quality of manpower involved in operation and repair / maintenance of the vehicles
Establish a monitoring system to keep a check on the performance of the management system Improve quality of life of the in-habitants, labors & workers

Improvement in the growth of plants & trees

Induction of new technology & cleaner fuels
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PM2.5 concentration at Lahore

91

International Participation Program

Worldwide Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET)

92

SCIAMACHY(ENVISAT) CO Column(1018Molecules/cm2)

93

MODIS CO (Molecules/cm2)

94

EUMETSAT (NO2)

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