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BASICS OF WELDING

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Welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials (usually metals) by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.
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A Brief History of Welding


Late 19th Century Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat and/or join metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.) Early 20th Century Prior to World War I welding was not trusted as a method to join two metals due to crack issues 1930s and 40s Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used extensively in the war effort to build tanks, ships, etc. Modern Welding the nuclear/space age helps bring welding from an art to a science

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Welding Processes

Types of Welding
Fusion Welding
Oxyacetylene Gas Welding Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

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Oxyacetylene Gas Welding


Coalescence is produced by oxyacetylene flame. It can yield temperature up to 3200 deg C. Filler metal may or may not be used.

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Oxyacetylene Gas Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Heat for welding is generated by an arc established between a flux covered consumable electrode and the work piece. The work metal is made part of an electric circuit known as welding circuit. This circuit consists of:
Source of power, Welding cables, An electrode holder, A ground clamp, Work metal and Consumable welding electrode

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Amperage Selection Chart

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Striking An Arc Scratch Start Technique

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Striking An Arc Tapping Technique

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Positioning Electrode Holder

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Electrode Movement During Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Essentials for Proper Welding Procedures :


Correct Electrode Size Correct Current Correct ARC Length or Voltage Correct Travel Speed Correct Electrode Angle

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Functions of Flux :
Provide a protective coating around the arc to keep away oxygen, nitrogen etc. Facilitates arc striking and for arc stability. Forms a protective slag on molten pool and prevents oxidation. Gives better penetration. Varies the fluidity of slags for different purposes (for example: slag of reduced fluidity is desirable in overhead position welding) For controlling composition of weld metal.

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Correct Electrode Size :
The correct choice of electrode size involves consideration of a variety of factors , such as the type, position and preparation of the joint, the ability of the electrode to carry high current values without injury to the weld metal or loss of deposition efficiency, etc.

Correct Current :
If current is too high, the electrode melts too fast and the molten pool is large and irregular. If too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal.

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Correct ARC Length :
If the arc is too long or voltage too high the metal melts off the electrode giving a wide, spattered and irregular beadwith poor fusion between original metal and deposited metal. If the arc is too short, or voltage too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal properly

Correct Travel Speed :


When your speed is too fast your pool does not last long enough, impurities and gas is locked in. When speed is too slow the metal piles up, the bead is high and wide, with a rather straight ripple.

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Correct Electrode Angle :
The electrode angle is of particular importance in fillet welding and deep groove welding. When making a fillet weld, the electrode should be held so that it bisects the angle between the plates (as shown at below) and is perpendicular to the line of weld.

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Conditions That Affect Weld Bead Shape

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding)


Coalescence is produced by heating the work piece with an electric arc between a continuously fed metal electrode and the work piece. No flux is required. Shielded by inert gas (Argon, CO2, Helium or mixture).
GMAW torch nozzle cutaway image. (1) Torch handle, (2) Molded phenolic dielectric (white) and threaded metal nut insert (yellow), (3) Shielding gas diffuser, (4) Contact tip, (5) Nozzle output face

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Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding)

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Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding)

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Welding)


TIG welding is an arc welding process in which the heat is produced between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work metal. The arc and adjacent heated areas of the work piece are protected from atmospheric contamination by a shield of inert gas. A filler metal may or may not be used depending upon the requirement. Because the electrode is non-consumable, a weld can be made by fusion of the base metal without the addition of filler metal.
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Welding)

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Welding)

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Welding)

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG Welding)


Selection of Inert Gas Shield :
Helium and argon gases are mostly used. These do not react with tungsten or tungsten alloy electrodes and have no adverse effect on the quality of the weld metal. Argon is more widely preferred, because it provides a softer arc, which is smooth and stable. Argon provides greater coverage of the weld puddle at low flow rates. With argon, the flow rate may be 12 to 20 cubic feet per hour.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc set up between a bare metal electrode and the work piece. The arc end of the electrode and the weld pool remains completely hidden being submerged under a blanket of granular flux material. Continuously fed electrode melts and welding is progressively done. Used for very thick sections. C and Cr addition is to be done to the filler to avoid C and Cr depletion from the weld. SAW welds have better toughness and ductility compared to welds made by TIG.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

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SAFETY DURING WELDING


Wear approved safety glasses with side shields under your welding helmet or face shield and at all times in the work area.

Wear dry, hole-free insulating gloves and body protection. Do not touch electrode with bare hand. Do not wear wet or damaged gloves. Do not touch live electrical parts.

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SAFETY DURING WELDING


Protect yourself from electric shock by insulating yourself from work and ground. Disconnect input plug or power before working on machine. Frequently inspect input power cord for damage or bare wiring repair or replace cord immediately if damaged. Be sure input ground wire is properly connected to a ground terminal.
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SAFETY DURING WELDING


Keep your head out of the fumes. Do not breathe the fumes.

Do not weld near flammable material. Welding sparks can cause fires. Have a fire extinguisher nearby

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SAFETY DURING WELDING


Arc rays can burn eyes and skin.

Use welding helmet with correct shade of filter. Wear welders cap and safety glasses with side shields. Wear complete body protection.
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SAFETY DURING WELDING


Confined spaces can be hazardous.

Cylinders can explode if damaged.

Magnetic fields can affect Implanted Medical Devices.

Hot parts can cause severe burns.


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Weldability
Weldability, as defined by AWS, is the capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be welded under fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. The better the weldability, the greater is the ease with which these requirements are met.

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Weldability
Common Name Carbon Content (%) 0.03 max 0.15 max 0.15-0.3 0.3-0.6 0.6-2.0 Weldability Ingot Iron Low Carbon Steel Mild Steel Med. Carbon Steel High Carbon Steel Excellent Excellent Good Fair Poor (Difficult to Weld)

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Carbon Equivalent (CE)


Weldability of steel in terms of its susceptibility to cracking can be roughly estimated by use of a carbon equivalent (CE).
CE= % C + %Mn + % Ni + % Cr + % Cu - % Mo - % V 4 20 10 40 50 10

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Pre Heating Of Base Metal


Preheating of steels reduces the thermal and shrinkage stresses by reducing the temperature differential between base metal and the weld metal. Preheating increases toughness and ductility of the base metal and thus reduces the cracking tendency during cooling from welding. Preheating temperature shall be maintained over the whole length of the joint during welding. Preheating shall be extended uniformly to at least three times the thickness of the joint, but not less than 50 mm, on both sides of the weld.
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Post Weld Heat Treatment


Post weld heat treatment is carried out to reduce the hardness, increase the toughness and ductility and improve the service performance of the weldment. Post Weld Heat Treatment, wherever required for joints between pipes, pipes and fittings, pipe body and support shall be carried out as per the welding specification chart, applicable codes /standards. Post Weld Heat Treatment shall be done in a furnace or by using an electric resistance or induction heating equipment with time temperature recorder.
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Post Weld Heat Treatment


Throughout the cycle of Heat treatment, the portion outside the heated band shall be suitably wrapped under insulation to avoid any harmful temperature gradient at the exposed surface of pipe. The temperature attained by the portion under heat treatment shall be recorded by means of thermocouple, pyrometers.

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Standard Joint Design For Butt Welding

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Welding Positions

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Welding Electrode

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Welding Electrode
An electrode is a piece of wire or rod (of metal or alloy) with or without flux covering which carries current and also acts as filler material for welding.

At one end it is gripped in a holder and arc is generated at the other end.
Different types of electrodes are available in the market for different welding processes.
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Selection of Electrodes
Selection of right kind of electrode for a given application is very important to achieve desired properties of welding joints. The choice depends on following factors: Chemical composition of base metal. Thickness of work piece. Electrode coating. Welding position. Power source (AC / DC). Weld quality. Mechanical and other properties. Cost effectiveness.

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Classification / coding of Electrodes

SMAW

GTAW

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Classification / coding of Electrodes


WELDING MATERIALS
COATED ELECTRODES BARE WIRE ASME SF A 5, 18 SF A 5, 18 SF A 5, 9 - DO SF A 5, 9 SF A 5, 9 SF A 5, 9 SF A 5, 9 CLASSIFICATION E 70S 2 E 70S 1B

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

MATERIALS Carbon Steel Carbon Moly 1-1/4 Chrome Moly 2-1/4 Chrome Moly 5 Chrome Moly 9 Chrome Moly 12 Chrome 3-1/2 Nickel 18 Chrome 8 Nickel (308, 308L) 18 Cr 10 Ni Cb (347) 18 Cr 10 Ni Mo (316 316L) 25 Cr 12 Ni (309) Inconel Inconel Monel Nickel 25 Cr 20 Ni (310)
ASME SF A 5, 1 SF A 5, 5 SF A 5, 5 SF A 5, 5 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 5 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 4 CLASSIFICATION E610, E7018 E7010 A1, E7018 A1 E8016 B2, E8018 B2 E9016 B3, E9018 B3 E502 16 or 15 E505 16 or 15 E410 16 or 15 E8016 C2, E8018 C2 E308 16 or 15 E308l 16 or 15 E347 16 or 15 E316 16 or 15 E316l 16 or 15

ER 502 ER 505 ER 410 ER 308, ER 308L ER 347 ER 316, ER 316L

12
13 14 15 16

SF A 5, 4 SFA 5, 11
SF A 5, 11 SF A 5, 11 SF A 5, 11 SF A 5, 4

E309 16 or 15 ENi Cr Fe 3
ENi Cr Fe 3 ENi Cu 7 ENI 1 E310 16 or 15

SF A 5, 9 SF A 5, 14
SF A 5, 14 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 4 SF A 5, 9

ER 309 ER Ni Cr 3
ER Ni Cr 3 ER Ni Cu 7 ER Ni 1 ER 310

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Welding Electrode
Low Alloy Steel Electrodes (AWS A5.5):
Suffixes and Approximate alloy Content in Weld Deposit for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for SMAW
SUFFIX
-A1 -B1 -B2

ALLOY CONTENT (%)


0.5 Mo 0.5 Cr 0.5 Mo 1.25 Cr 0.5 Mo

-B3
-B4 -B5 -C1 -C2 -C3 -D1 -G

2.25 Cr 1 Mo
2 Cr 0.5 Mo 00.5 Cr 1 Mo 2.5 Ni 3.25 Ni 1 Ni, 0.35 Mo, 0.15 Cr 0.25 0.45 Mo, 1.25 1.75 Mn 0.5 Min Ni, 0.3 Min Cr, 0.2 Min Mo, 0.1 Min V, 1 Min Mn (only one element required)

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Welding Electrode
Welding Electrodes for Alloy & Stainless Steel:
Sl. No.
1

Base Metal

P. No.
P3

Welding Electrodes A.S.M.E. A.W.S


S.F.A.5.5

Classificatio n
E7018 A1

Preheat 0C (see note)


100C Min. 800C min for thickness 1/2 or base metal T.S.>71Ksi

Postweld heat treatment 0C (see note)


None 6500C, 1 hr/in, for thickness >3/4 or base metal T.S. > 71 Ksi

C-1/2 Mo

1.1/4 Cr1/2 Mo

P4

S.F.A.5.5

E8016 B2, E8018 B2

1500C Minimum

7200C, 1hr/in, with 2 hrs. min., none for thickness<1/2 or base metal T.S. 71Ksi
7200C, 1hr/in, with 2 hrs. min. None for thickness 1/2 and C 0.15%

2.1/4 Cr1 Mo

P5

S.F.A.5.5

E9016 B3, E9018 B3

1800C Minimum

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Welding Electrode
Sl. No. Base Metal P. No. Welding Electrodes A.S.M.E. A.W.S
S.F.A.5.4

Classificatio n
E505-16 or -15
E505-16 or -15 E410-16 or 15 E309-16 or -15 E309-16 or 15 ENi Cr Fe-3 E410-16 or 15

Preheat 0C (see note)

Postweld heat treatment 0C (see note)


7200C, 1 hr/in. with 2 hrs. min.
7300C, I hr/in. with two hrs. min. 7600C, 1 hr/in. with 2 hrs. min None

5 Cr1/2 Mo
9 Cr1 Mo 12 Cr Type 410

P5

1800C Minimum

P5

S.F.A.5.4

1800C Minimum

P6

S.F.A.5.4 S.F.A.5.4

2050C Minimum 2050C Minimum

12 Cr Type 405

P7

S.F.A.5.4 S.F.A.5.4 S.F.A.5.11 S.F.A.5.4

100C Minimum 100C Minimum 1500C Minimum

None None 7300C 1 hr/in. with 2 hrs. min.

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Welding Electrode
Sl. No.
8

Base Metal

P. No.
P 9B

Welding Electrodes A.S.M.E. A.W.S


S.F.A.5.5 S.F.A.5.5 S.F.A.5.11 S.F.A.5.4

Classificatio n
E8016-C2 E8018-C2 E Ni Cr Fe-3 E308-16 or 15 E308L-16 or -15 E347-16 or 15

Preheat 0C (see note)


950C Minimum

Postweld heat treatment 0C (see note)


6200C hr/in. 1 hr minimum

3.1/2 Ni

18 Cr-8Ni SS Type 304 SS Type 304L 18 Cr-8Ni Stabilised SS Type 347, 321 18 Cr-10NiMo SS Type 316 SS Type 316L

P8

100C min.

None

10

P8

S.F.A.5.4

100C min.

None

11

P8

S.F.A.5.4

E316-16 or 15 E316L-16 or 15

100C min.

None

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Welding Electrode
Sl. No. Base Metal P. No. Welding Electrodes A.S.M.E. A.W.S
12 25 Cr-12Ni Type 309 P8 S.F.A.5.4

Preheat 0C (see note)

Classificatio n
E309-16 or -15 100C min.

Postweld heat treatment 0C (see note)

None

13

25 Cr-20Ni SS Type 310

P8

S.F.A.5.4

E310-16 or -15

100C min.

None

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Inspection Of Welding
Inspection Before Welding:

Checking of drawings, dimensional tolerance, WPS, PQR, WPQ etc.


Material checking. Electrode checking. Checking of welding equipments. Checking of weld joint design.
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Inspection Of Welding
Inspection During Welding:

Ensure weld area is free from dust, rust, oil etc.


Ensure proper tag weld size, length, pitch etc.

Checking for proper welding current, voltage, speed etc.


Ensuring removal of slags from intermediate passes for multiple pass welding.
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Inspection Of Welding
Inspection After Welding: Destructive Tests (for mechanical properties / chemical analysis / spectro etc).

Non Destructive Tests (NDT).


Checking of distortion.

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Welding Procedure Qualifications


This shall be done as per ASME Section IX Article 2 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). A WPS is a written qualified welding procedure prepared to provide direction for making production welds to Code requirements. The WPS or other documents may be used to provide direction to the welder or welding operator to assure compliance with the Code requirements. Procedure Qualification Record (PQR). A PQR is a record of the welding data used to weld a test coupon.
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Welding Procedure Qualifications

Electrode Qualification Test


This shall be done as per ASME Section II Part C One or more of the following five weld test assemblies are required:
The weld pad in Fig. 1 for chemical analysis of the undiluted weld metal The groove weld in Fig. 2 for mechanical properties and soundness of the weld metal The fillet weld in Fig. 3 for the usability of the electrode

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Electrode Qualification Test

FIG. 1 PAD FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF UNDILUTED WELD METAL

FIG. 2 GROOVE WELD TEST ASSEMBLY FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SOUNDNESS EXCEPT FOR E6022 AND E7018M ELECTRODES

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Electrode Qualification Test

FIG. 3 FILLET WELD TEST ASSEMBLY

FIG. 4 TEST ASSEMBLY FOR TRANSVERSE TENSION AND LONGITUDINAL GUIDED BEND TESTS FOR WELDS MADE WITH E6022 ELECTRODES

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Electrode Qualification Test

FIG. 5 GROOVE WELD TEST ASSEMBLY FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SOUNDNESS OF WELD METAL MADE WITH E7018M ELECTRODES

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Welder Qualification

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Welder Qualification
This shall be done as per ASME Section IX The performance qualification is done in accordance with one of any of the qualified Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS). When performance qualification is done in accordance with a WPS that requires Post weld heat treatment (PWHT), this PWHT may be omitted. The welded test joints for qualification may be examined by mechanical tests or by radiography.

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Welder Qualification

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Welding Defects

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Welding Defects
Porosity Cracks Undercut Distortion Spatter Lack of Fusion Overlapping Lack of Penetration Magnetic Arc Blow Inclusion
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Welding Defects

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Welding Defects
Defect Porosity Causes Excessively long or short arc length. Welding current too high. Insufficient or damp shielding gases. Base metal surface covered with oil, grease, moisture, rust, mill scale etc. Wet, unclean or damaged electrode/filler wire. Remedies Maintain proper arc length. Use proper welding current. Increase gases flow rate & check gas purity. Reduce travel speed. Clean properly base metal prior to welding. Maintain and store electrode/filler wire properly.

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Welding Defects
Defect Crack Causes Insufficient weld size. Excessive joint restraint. Poor joint design and/or preparation. Filler metal does not match base metal. Rapid cooling rate. Base metal surface covered with oil, grease, moisture, rust, and dirt or mill scale. Remedies Adjust weld size to part thickness. Reduce joint restraint through proper design. Select the proper joint design. Use more ductile filler. Reduce cooling rate through preheat. Clean properly base metal prior to welding.

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Welding Defects
Defect Lack of penetration Causes Travel speed too fast. Welding current too low. Poor joint design and/or preparation. Electrode diameter too large. Wrong type of electrode. Excessively long arc length. Remedies Decrease travels speed. Increase welding current. Increase root opening or decrease root face. Use smaller electrode. Use electrode with deeper penetration characteristics. Reduce arc length.

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Welding Defects
Defect Inclusion Causes Incomplete slag removal between passes. Erratic travel speed. Too wide a weaving motion. Too large an electrode. Letting slag run ahead of arc. Tungsten spitting or sticking. Remedies Completely remove slag between passes. Use a uniform travel speed. Reduce width of weaving technique. Use a smaller electrode size for better access to joint. Increase travel speed or change electrodes angle or reduce arc length. Properly prepare tungsten and use proper current.

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Testing of Weld joint


Several Techniques are available for testing quality of a weld:
Visual Inspection Dye Penetrant Testing Magnetic Particles Testing Radiography Testing Ultrasonic Testing Destructive Testing

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Dye Penetrant Test


CRACK DYE APPLIED

TRAPPED DYE ON CLEANED SURFACE

CRACK VISIBLE ON APPLYING DEVELOPER

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Radiography Test
Principle :
RADIATION SOURCE DISCONTINUITY METAL

FILM

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Radiography Test
Sample Films :
Lack Of Penetration

Cluster Of Porosity

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Radiography Test
Sample Films :

Tungsten Inclusion Transverse Crack

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AUTOMATIC WELDING

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CASE STUDIES

LEAK IN PRESSURE TRANSMITTER IMPULSE LINE OF STABILIZER REFLUX VESSEL

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CASE STUDIES

CRACK IN WELD OVERLAY OF RTJ GROOVE IN REACTOR

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CASE STUDIES

LEAK IN SEAL WELDING OF PLUGS OF HIGH PRESSURE AIR COOLER

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CASE STUDIES

ARC STRIKE DAMAGE OF SS CLADDING OF COLUMN

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CASE STUDIES

Standard Joint

Poor Penetration & Under cut

Improper Fit Up & Welding

Crack

WELD FAILURE OF STUB IN REACTOR INLET LINE

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