1

M.P.S. Fernando
Dy Chief Engineer

NUCLEAR POWER CORPORATION INDIA LIMITED
2
Radioactivity
Emission of particles or waves from the
nucleus of an atom
Types of radiation common in nuclear
Engineering
o - Alpha Particles
| - Beta Particles
- Gamma Rays
n - Neutrons


3
| Decay
Ray (0.31 Mev)
107
45
Rh
Ground State
107
46
Pa
Beta Decay Followed by Gamma Ray
Emission
4
Exponential Radioactive Decay
5
Radioactive decay
It is a fundamental law of Nature
Number of random events occurring is proportional to
the total number of active elements in the sample.

693 . 0
2
2 log

2
1
) 0 ( ) (

dt
dN
Sample in Number
time
Events of Number
2
1
2
1
= = =
= =
=

T e
e t N t N
N
T
t
2
1
T
Half Life of a decay process of radioactive isotopes is the
time taken for the total number in the sample to reduced
to one half of its initial value
6
Interaction of Neutron With Nuclei
Neutrons Nuclei
Scattering
Absorption
Elastic Scattering
Inelastic Scattering
Radiative Capture
Nuclear Transmutation
Induced Fission
7
The three major particles emitted by spontaneous radioactive decay
are alpha, beta and gamma.
Alpha particles are doubly charged helium nuclei, which move
slowly when they are emitted. They are emitted from large nuclei
such as U-235, U-238 or Thorium.
Beta particles are electrons. At the time the are emitted they are
generally traveling at a speed greater than 90% of the speed of light.
They are emitted from a nucleus with too many neutrons. A neutron
in the nucleus changes to a proton and a beta particle is emitted.
Gamma usually accompanies alpha or beta decay. They are
photons of electromagnetic energy that travel at the speed of light.
Alpha and beta particles are directly ionizing radiations.They leave a
trail of ionized atoms in their wake.
Gamma rays are indirectly ionizing radiation, and interact with atoms
to generate ions. The three gamma interactions are Compton effect,
photoelectric effect and pair production.
Beta and alpha can be shielded by placing material between the
source of the radiation between the source and a person.
Gamma is the most difficult to shield. The effectiveness of a material
in shielding gamma is referred to as a half value layer the thickness
of material required to reduce the gamma energy by one-half.


8
Elastic Scattering
9
In Elastic Scattering
10
Transmutation
Neutron Oxygen Nitrogen Proton
11
Radiative Capture



Nuclear Transmutation



Nuclear Fission
Examples of Neutron Absorption
Fuel) in (reaction + U n U
Adjusters) in (reaction + Co n Co
Moderator) in (reaction H n H
239
92
1
0
238
92
60
27
1
0
59
27
3
1
1
0
2
1

+
+
+ +
N + H n + O
He + H n + Li
He + Li n + B
16
7
1
1
1
0
16
8
4
2
3
1
1
0
6
3
4
2
7
3
1
0
10
5

+ n +2 Sr + Xe U n U
1
0
90
38
144
54
* 236
92
1
0
235
92
+
12
s
/s
2
13
us
Mass Defect and Binding Energy
14
Binding Energy per Nucleon
15
16
17
1 3 2
2 H H H +
Deutron BE=2.23 Mev
Total =4.46 Mev
Tritium BE=8.48 Mev
Net =8.48-4.46 Mev=4.02 Mev
FUSION REACTIONS

Atleast one heavier,more stable nuclei is produced
from two lighter, less stable nuclei
18
235
92
U
236
92
U
95
36
Kr
139
56
Ba
NUCLEAR FISSION
19
FISSION CHAIN REACTION
20
U
235
Pu
239
Formation of Fission Products
21
The fission products (fission fragments) are
nuclides of roughly half the mass of uranium
Not always the same in every fission. Great
number of different fission products, each
produced in a certain percentage of the fissions.
Most fission-product nuclides are neutron rich;
decay typically by |- or -disintegration, are
radioactive, with various half-lives.
To prevent the release of radioactivity, therefore,
they used fuel is safely stored and contained.

PRODUCTS OF FISSION
22
23
Incident Beam
of Radiation
o =area presented
to neutron by nucleus
I
dX
I-dI
E
=
= E
=
=

1

N

) (

o
o
o x N
o
e I I
dx N I dI
Outgoing Beam
Thin Slab
24
25
Schematic View of Cross-sections
26
Energy From Fission
Energy released per fission ~ 200 MeV
[~ 3.2*10
-11
J].
85% as kinetic energy of fission fragments,
and 15% as kinetic energy of other particles.
The energy is quickly converted to heat;
The heat is used to make steam by boiling water,
The steam turns a turbine and generates
electricity
27
Approximate Distribution of Fission Energy
Release
Kinetic energy of fission fragments 164 Mev

Kinetic energy secondary neutrons 5 Mev

Energy of Prompt rays 6 Mev

Beta particles gradually released from
Fission products (FPs) 8 Mev

Gamma ray energy released from FPs 6 Mev

Neutrinos (energy escapes from reactor) 11 Mev

200 Mev
28
Atoms in 1 kg of U-235
1 kg of U-235 Consumed
29
A fissile material is composed of nuclides for
which fission is possible with neutrons of any
energy level (even thermal neutrons).

Thermal neutrons have very low kinetic energy
levels because they are roughly in equilibrium
with the thermal motion of surrounding materials

EXAMPLES

Uranium-235, Uranium-233, and
Plutonium-239.



30
FERTILE MATERIAL
Fertile materials are materials that can undergo transmutation
to become fissile materials.
27.4 d
22.2 min
2.3 d
23.5 min
2.4 10
4
yr
1.6 10
5
yr
31
NATURAL URANIUM
Natural uranium mined from the earth contains the
isotopes uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234.

The majority (99.2745%) of all the atoms in natural
uranium are uranium-238.

Most of the remaining atoms (0.72%) are uranium-235,
and a slight trace (0.0055%) are uranium-234.

Although all isotopes of uranium have similar chemical
properties, each of the isotopes has significantly different
nuclear properties.

32
K pf qc

=
reproduction factor q =
fast fission factor c =
Neutron produced in fission in one generation
Neutron absorption and leakage in preceding generation
effective
K =
resonance escape probability p =
thermal utilisation factor f =

effective fast thermal
K pf P P qc =
Neutron Multiplication Factor
33
States of the Reactor Core
Sub-critical keff<1 Neutron flux decreases
Critical keff=1 Neutron flux constant
Supercritical keff>1 Neutron flux increases

Reactivity is defined as the deviation of the
reactor core from critical condition,
eff
eff
k
1 - k
=
mk , pcm, cent, dollar
34
Thermal
Fissions
Fast
Fissions
Absorption
in Fuel
Absorption in non-fuel
components
Resonance
Capture
Escape
Resonance
Capture

thermal neutrons
N pf qc
N Thermal Neutrons
fast neutrons Nq
neutrons N p qc
fast neutrons N qc


N pf
K
N
qc

=
35
Homogeneous System
Fuel and moderator thoroughly mixed
c=1
q
for Natural Uranium Fuel= 1.32
For Criticality Kinfinity=1 requires
77 . 0
32 . 1
1
= = pf
Vary ratio of moderator to Fuel atoms
Max pf obtained is 0.55 graphite, 0.78 D
2
O
Natural U Homogeneous system cannot be critical
36
Practical Reactor
Fuel Consumption
Fission Poison Accumulation
K should be 1.1 to 1.2
q
Required
Graphite for 18 . 2
55 . 0
2 . 1 2 . 1

O D for 54 . 1
78 . 0
2 . 1 2 . 1

2
= = =
= = =
pf
pf
q
q
q
Increases with enrichment
37
Heterogenous Reactor
Location of Fuel Fixed
Replacement of Spent Fuel Easier
Ease of Heat Removal
Fast Fission factor increases
Resonance Escape probability increases
Over moderated / Under Moderated(f)

1.102
1.32 x 0.9 x 0.9 x 1.03

=
=
=

K
f p K q c
38
Critical Mass
Because leakage of neutrons out of reactor
increases as size of reactor decreases, reactor
must have a minimum size
Below minimum size (critical mass), leakage is
too high and k
eff
cannot possibly be equal to 1.
Critical mass depends on
shape of the reactor
composition of the fuel
other materials in the reactor.
Shape for which critical mass is least, is shape
with smallest surface-to-volume ratio: a sphere.
39
40
NET RATE OF
NEUTRON
PRODUCTION
RATE OF LOSS OF NEUTRONS
RATE OF PRODUCTION
DUE TO
OF NEUTRONS
LEAKAGE ,
BY FISSIONS
ABSORPTION


=
`

)

` `

)

)
PRODUCTION = ABSORPTION + LEAKAGE
41
REACTOR CAN BE CRITICAL AT ANY
POWER LEVEL

- FULL POWER ( 800 MW )
- VERY LOW POWER ( 10
-6
FP )

IN A CRITICAL REACTOR POWER LEVEL
IS STEADY

42
43
44
Average Number of Elastic Collisions
to Thermalise neutrons
45
Bare and Reflected Core
46
Reflector
Reflector
Core
Bare
Reflected
47
Keffective should be always 1 while reactor operating at
any steady power level

If reactor operates for some period, the fissile content
reduces U235

Number of Fission reactions decrease and hence
Keffective

To restore back Keffective to 1, Reactor Regulating
System withdraws adjuster rods, thereby reducing neutron
absorption.

To restore back adjuster rod position to the control range,
U235 content is increased by replacement of fresh fuel


48
K
T
e t P P
e t n n
K n
dt
dn
Kt
Kt
o
o
o
o
A
=
= =
= =
A
=
A
A
) 0 (
) 0 (
49
If reactivity was 0.5 mk
K
T
o
A
=
sec 2
5
10
0005 . 0
001 . 0
= = = T
If reactivity was 2 mk
sec 5 . 0
2
1
002 . 0
001 . 0
= = = T
Effective regulation and protection becomes difficult
50
s 0923 . 0 neutrons all of life Average
s) (15 neutrons delayed all of Life average the is
) (
=
+ A
=
t
o
t o |
K
K
T
If reactivity was 0.5 mk
sec 200
5
1000
0005 . 0
1 . 0
= = = T
If reactivity was 2 mk
sec 50
2
100
002 . 0
1 . 0
= = = T
Effective regulation and protection becomes difficult
| is the fraction delayed neutrons (0.65 %)
51
Production of Delayed Neutron from Br-87
52
53
54
Delayed Photoneutrons in D
2
O
55
Xenon Transient
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (Hr)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
m
k
)
Xenon(mk)
Reactor is restarted
Reactor is shut down
Poison out
Time
Poison Override
Time
56
1 Fission = 200 Mev

1 Fission =200 x 1.602 10
-13
W-sec

1 Watt = 3.12 x 10
10
Fissions/sec

800 MW = 2.496 x 10
19
Fissions/sec

U-235 is getting depleted, hence refuelling
is necessary


57
Neutron Flux
| = n.v where n is the number of neutrons per unit
volume and v is their speed
Macroscopic cross-section (cm
-1
)
E = n.o where o is the microscopic cross-section
Reaction Rate (neutrons.cm
-3
.s
-1
)
R = E.|
Irradiation / Fluence (neutrons.cm
-2
)
e = |.t where t is the time spent by the material in that
neutron flux
Nuclear Terms
s cm
neutrons
2
58
59
Reactor Principles
Neutron Chain reaction for Power
Control of Neutrons
Moderation of neutrons
Removal of Energy
60
Reactor Classification
Energy of the neutrons that induce fission
Thermal neutron reactors
Fast neutron reactors
Arrangement of components in the core
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Purpose
Research reactors
Material testing reactors
Power reactors
Propulsion reactors


1
st
Reactor CP-1 built by Enrico Fermi,Chicago, USA, 1942
61
Components of a Nuclear Reactor
Component Function Materials
Fuel Fission reactions to produce energy
Coolant Remove heat from the reactor core
H
2
O, D
2
O, paraffin, Air,
Na, He
Moderator
Slow down and thermalise fast fission
neutrons
H
2
O, D
2
O, graphite
Reflector Reduce neutron leakage
Same as moderator
materials
Shielding
Protect personnel from ionizing
radiation
Concrete, Steel, lead,
H
2
O
Control Rods Control criticality and power maneuver Cd, B, SS, Gd
Structures
contain fuel and physical support of
core
Al, SS, Zr, Concrete
Pu U, U,
239
94
235
92
233
92
62
63
Reactor Types
1. MAGNOX Reactor
2. Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor
3. High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor
4. Pressurised Water Reactor
5. Boiling Water Reactor
6. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
7. Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor
8. Fast Breeder Reactor
64
BWR PWR PHWR LMFBR
Mwe
1100 1100 508 1200
Efficiency (%)
33 33 30 40
Assembly Geometry
8 x 8 17 x 17 Cylindrical
Hexagonal
Array

9 x 9
Assembly Length (m)
3.8 3.7 0.5 1
Number of Assemblies
590 180 4680(12/ch) 360
Core Height (m)
3.8 3.7 5.95 1
Mass of Fuel / Assembly (kg)
270 600 37 80
Total Mass of Fuel in core (kg)
138000 90000-100000 105000 29000
Burnup (MWD/TeU)
45000 45000 8000 100000
Fuel Replaced every Year
1/4 1/3 continous Varied
Enriched (%)
2.5 3.5 0.711 ~20
Power density (KW/ft)
54 100 12 280
Linear Heat Rate (KW/m)
19 17 26 29
65
66
67
Characteristics of VVER-1000
Vertical core: Height = 355 cm; Dia = 316 cm

Slightly enriched (~ 2.5 %) U-235 (SEU) as fue
l
Light water (H
2
O) as Coolant and Moderator

Large Core Potential local critical masses

Similar to western PWRs

Hexagonal geometry (163 FA 311 fuel pins)