Chapter 3 Algorithms

3.1 Introduction

An algorithm is a finite set of instructions with the following characteristics:

Precision: steps are precisely stated Uniqueness: Results of each step of execution are uniquely defined. They depend only on inputs and results of preceding steps Finiteness: the algorithm stops after finitely many steps

More characteristics of algorithms

Input: the algorithm receives input Output: the algorithm produces output Generality: the algorithm applies to various sets of inputs

Example: a simple algorithm

Algorithm to find the largest of three numbers a, b, c:
Assignment operator s := k means copy the value of k into s

1. x:= a 2. If b > x then x:= b 3. If c > x then x:= c A trace is a check of the algorithm for specific values of a, b and c

3.2 Notation for algorithms

Pseudocode: Instructions given in a generic language similar to a computer language such as C++ or Pascal. Else Procedure (Function) Return If-then, action While loop If-then-else For loop begin End

3.3 The Euclidean Algorithm

Divisors: Given an integer n, we say that k is a divisor of n or k divides n, notation: k|n, if k is a positive integer n = kq for some integer q called the quotient. A common divisor of two integers m and n is a positive integer k such that k|m and k|n.

Euclidean Algorithm

Given two integers m and n, the gcd(m,n) or greatest common divisor of m and n is a common divisor k > 1 such that k is the largest of all common divisors of m and n. The Euclidean algorithm finds the gcd(m, n). Theorem 3.3.6: If a & b are positive integers, and r = a mod b, then gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,r)
Example: if a = 120, b = 80, then r = 40 = 120 mod 80. Thus, gcd(120,80) = gcd(80,40)

3.4 Recursive algorithms

A recursive procedure is a procedure that invokes itself

Example: given a positive integer n, factorial of n is defined as the product of n by all numbers less than n and greater than 0. Notation: n! = n(n-1)(n-2)3.2.1

Observe that n! = n(n-1)! = n(n-1)(n-2)!, etc. A recursive algorithm is an algorithm that contains a recursive procedure

Fibonacci sequence
Leonardo Fibonacci (Pisa, Italy, ca. 1170-1250) Fibonacci sequence f1, f2, defined recursively as follows: f1 = 1 f2 = 2 fn = fn-1 + fn-2 for n > 3 First terms of the sequence are: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

3.5 Complexity of algorithms

Complexity: the amount of time and/or space needed to execute the algorithm. Complexity depends on many factors: data representation type, kind of computer, computer language used, etc.

Types of complexity
Best-case time = minimum time needed to execute the algorithm for inputs of size n Worst-case time = maximum time needed to execute the algorithm for inputs of size n Average-case time = average time needed

Order of an algorithm
Let f and g be functions with domain Z+ = {1, 2, 3,} f(n) = O(g(n)): f(n) is of order at most g(n)

if there exists a positive constant C1 such that |f(n)| < C1|g(n)| for all but finitely many n

f(n) = (g(n)): f(n) is of order at least g(n)

if there exists a positive constant C2 such that |f(n)| > C2|g(n)| for all but finitely many n

f(n) = (g(n)): f(n) is or order g(n) if it is O(g(n)) and (g(n)).

3.6 Analysis of the Euclidean algorithm

Theorem 3.6.1: Suppose that the pair a, b with a > b requires n >1 modulus operations when input to the Euclidean algorithm. Then a > fn+1 and b > fn+1, where {fn} is the

Fibonacci sequence.

Number of operations
Theorem 3.6.2: If integers in the range 0 to m, m > 8, not both zero, are input to the Euclidean algorithm, then the number of modulus operations required is at most
log 3/2 (2m/3)

3.7 The RSA public-key cryptosystem

Cryptosystems: systems for secure communications

Used by government, industry, investigation agencies, etc.

Sender encrypts a message Receiver decripts the message RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) system

Messages are represented as numbers Based on the fact that no efficient algorithm exists for factoring large digit integers in polynomial time O(nk).