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Nuclear Medicine
Changes in the structure of the nucleus are
used in many ways in medicine Nuclear radiation can be used to visualize or test structures in your body to see if they are operating properly
e.g. labeling atoms so their intake and output can be monitored
The Curies
minerals and used an electroscope to detect where the uranic rays were coming from She discovered the rays were emitted from specific elements She also discovered new elements by detecting their rays
radium named for its green phosphorescence polonium named for her homeland
Electroscope
When charged, the metal foils spread apart due to like charge repulsion When exposed to ionizing radiation, the radiation knocks electrons off the air molecules, which jump onto the foils and discharge them, allowing them to drop down
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Radioactive rays have high energy Radioactive rays can penetrate matter Radioactive rays cause phosphorescent
chemicals to glow
basis of scintillation counter
What Is Radioactivity?
Radioactivity is the release of tiny, highenergy particles or gamma rays from an atom Particles are ejected from the nucleus
Rutherfords Experiment
++++++++++++ b
g
a
--------------
10
g
1 mm 100 mm
0.01 mm
Pieces of Lead
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Radioactivity
Radioactive nuclei spontaneously decompose into
smaller nuclei
radioactive decay we say that radioactive nuclei are unstable decomposing involves the nuclide emitting a particle and/or energy
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Transmutation
Rutherford discovered that during the radioactive
process, atoms of one element are changed into atoms of a different element transmutation
showing that statement 3 of Daltons Atomic Theory is not valid all the time, only for chemical reactions
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Nuclear Equations
We describe nuclear processes with nuclear
equations Use the symbol of the nuclide to represent the nucleus Atomic numbers and mass numbers are conserved
use this fact to predict the daughter nuclide if you know parent and emitted particle
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Alpha Emission
Ra He
4 2
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218 86
Rn
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Beta Emission
A b particle is like an electron
moving much faster produced from the nucleus
only about half the ionizing ability When an atom loses a b particle its
atomic number increases by 1 mass number remains the same
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Gamma Emission
Gamma (g) rays are high energy photons of
light No loss of particles from the nucleus No change in the composition of the nucleus
same atomic number and mass number
Least ionizing, but most penetrating Generally occurs after the nucleus undergoes
some other type of decay and the remaining particles rearrange
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Positron Emission
penetrating ability When an atom loses a positron from the nucleus, its
mass number remains the same atomic number decreases by 1
anti-electron
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Electron Capture
Occurs when an inner orbital electron is pulled
into the nucleus No particle emission, but atom changes
same result as positron emission
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Particle Changes
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What Kind of Decay and How Many Protons and Neutrons Are in the Daughter?
11 p+ 9 n0 = proton = neutron Alpha emission giving a daughter nuclide with nine protons and seven neutrons
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What Kind of Decay and How Many Protons and Neutrons Are in the Daughter?, Continued
9 p+ 12 n0
= proton
= neutron = electron Beta emission giving a daughter nuclide with 10 protons and 11 neutrons
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What Kind of Decay and How Many Protons and Neutrons Are in the Daughter?, Continued
5 p+ 4 n0
= proton
= neutron = positron Positron emission giving a daughter nuclide with four protons and five neutrons
Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Nuclear Equations
In the nuclear equation, mass numbers
and atomic numbers are conserved We can use this fact to determine the identity of a daughter nuclide if we know the parent and mode of decay
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Example 19.2b: Write the nuclear equation for positron emission from K40
1. Write the nuclide symbols for both the starting radionuclide and the particle
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Examle 19.2b: Write the nuclear equation for positron emission from K40
2. Set up the equation
emitted particles are products captured particles are reactants
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Example 19.2b: Write the nuclear equation for positron emission from K40
3. Determine the mass number and atomic number of the missing nuclide
mass and atomic numbers are conserved
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Example 19.2b: Write the nuclear equation for positron emission from K40
4. Identify and determine the symbol of the element from the atomic number
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Valley of Stability
for Z = 1 20, stable N/Z 1 for Z = 20 40, stable N/Z approaches 1.25 for Z = 40 80, stable N/Z approaches 1.5 for Z > 83, there are no stable nuclei
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Example 19.3b: Predict the kind of radioactive decay that Mg22 undergoes
Mg22
Z = 12 N = 22 12 = 10
Practice Predict whether Kr85 is stable or radioactive. If radioactive, predict the mode of radioactive decay and the daughter nuclide.
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Practice Predict whether Kr85 is stable or radioactive. If radioactive, predict the mode of radioactive decay and the daughter nuclide.
Kr85 has Z = 36 and N = (85 36) = 49
Because most stable isotopes with Z between 20 and 40 have N/Z ratios between 1 and 1.25, we expect Kr85 to be radioactive Because the N/Z ratio of Kr85 is greater than 1.25, it has too many neutrons and will undergo b decay to reduce them
(Kr85 is a byproduct of nuclear fission and was released into the atmosphere when atom bombs were tested in the 1940s to 1960s)
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 44 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Magic Numbers
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Decay Series
In nature, often one radioactive nuclide
changes into another radioactive nuclide
i.e. the daughter nuclide is also radioactive
or
a b a b b a b
or other combinations
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Detecting Radioactivity
To detect something, you need to identify what it does Radioactive rays can expose light-protected photographic film We may use photographic film to detect the presence of radioactive rays film badge dosimeters
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Radioactive rays cause air to become ionized An electroscope detects radiation by its ability
to penetrate the flask and ionize the air inside A Geiger-Mller counter works by counting electrons generated when Ar gas atoms are ionized by radioactive rays
Detecting Radioactivity
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give off a flash of light when they strike the chemical A scintillation counter is able to count the number of flashes per minute
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t1/2 = 0.693/k the shorter the half-life, the more nuclei decay
every second we say the sample is hotter
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Half-Life
1.4 x 1010 yr 4.5 x 109 yr 5730 yr 55.6 sec
Th219
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
alpha
Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Half-Life
Half of the radioactive atoms decay each half-life
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Example19.4: If you have a 1.35 mg sample of Pu236, calculate the mass that will remain after 5.00 years
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships:
mass Pu236 = 1.35 mg, t = 5.00 yr, t1/2 = 2.86 yr mass remaining, mg
t1/2
m 0, t
mt
Solve:
PracticeRadon222 is a gas that is suspected of causing lung cancer as it leaks into houses. It is produced by uranium decay. Assuming no loss or gain from leakage, if there is 10.24 g of Rn222 in the house today, how much will there be in 5.4 weeks? ( Rn222 half-life is 3.8 Days)
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Practice If there is 10.24 g of Rn222 in the house today, how much will there be in 5.4 weeks?
Given: Find: Conceptual Plan: Relationships:
t1/2
m 0, t
mt
Solve:
Check: units are correct, the magnitude makes sense because the
length of time is 10 half-lives
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 60 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Radiocarbon Dating All things that are alive or were once alive
contain carbon Three isotopes of carbon exist in nature, one of which, C14, is radioactive
C14 radioactive with half-life = 5730 yrs
decreases By measuring the C14/C12 ratio in a once living artifact and comparing it to the C14/C12 ratio in a living organism, we can tell how long ago the organism was alive The limit for this technique is 50,000 years old
about 9 half-lives, after which radioactivity from C14 will be below the background radiation
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 63 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Radiocarbon Dating
% C-14 (compared to living organism) 100% 90% 80% 60% 50% 40% Objects Age (in years) 0 870 1850 4220 5730 7580
25%
10%
11,500
19,000
5%
1%
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 64
24,800
38,100
Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 19.5: An ancient skull gives 4.50 dis/mingC. If a living organism gives 15.3 dis/mingC, how old is the skull?
Given: ratet1/2 = 4.50 dis/mingC, ratet1/2 = 15.3 dis/mingC Find: time, yr Conceptual Plan: Relationships:
t1/2
+ rate0, ratet
Solve:
Practice Archeologists have dated a civilization to 15,600 yrs ago. If a living sample gives 20.0 counts per minute per gram C, what would be the number of counts per minute per gram C for a rice grain found at the site?
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Practice What would be the number of counts per minute per gram for a rice grain found at the site?
Given: t = 15,600 yr, rate0 = 20.0 counts/mingC Find: ratet, counts/mingC Conceptual Plan: Relationships:
t1/2
rate0, t
ratet
Solve:
Lise Meitner
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Fissionable Material
Fissionable isotopes include U235, Pu239,
and Pu240 Natural uranium is less than 1% U235
rest mostly U238 not enough U235 to sustain chain reaction
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The heat boils water, turning it to steam The steam turns a turbine, generating
electricity
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Containment Building
PLWR
Turbine
Boiler Core
Condenser
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Cold Water
PLWR - Core
The control rods are made of neutron absorbing material. This allows the rate of Control neutron flow Rods through the reactor to be controlled. Because the neutrons are required to continue the chain reaction, the control rods control the rate of nuclear fission
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 80
Hot Water
Fuel Rods
Cold Water
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Waste disposal
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Example19.7: Calculate the mass defect and nuclear binding energy per nucleon (in MeV) for C16, a radioactive isotope of carbon with a mass of 16.014701 amu
Given: mass C-16 = 16.01470 amu, mass p+ = 1.00783 amu, mass n0 = 1.00866 amu Find: mass defect in amu, binding energy per nucleon in MeV Conceptual Plan: Relationships: Solve:
mp+, mn0, mC-16 mass defect binding energy
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Practice Calculate the binding energy per nucleon in Fe56 (mass 55.93494 amu)
Given: mass Fe-56 = 55.93494 amu, mass p+ = 1.00783 amu, mass n0 = 1.00866 amu Find: binding energy per nucleon in MeV mass Conceptual m , m , m binding energy p+ n0 C-16 defect Plan: Relationships: Solve:
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Nuclear Fusion
heavier, more stable nuclide The Sun uses the fusion of hydrogen isotopes to make helium as a power source Requires high input of energy to initiate the process
because need to overcome repulsion of positive nuclei
Produces 10x the energy per gram as fission No radioactive byproducts Unfortunately, the only currently working
application is the H-bomb
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Fusion
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High energy particles can be smashed into target nuclei, resulting in the production of new nuclei The particles may be radiation from another radionuclide, or charged particles that are accelerated
Rutherford made O17 bombarding N14 with alpha rays from radium Cf244 is made by bombarding U238 with C12 in a particle accelerator
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 91 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Linear Accelerator
+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ + + +
source
target
Nuclear Chemsity
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Cyclotron
target
source
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Practice Predict the other daughter nuclide and write a nuclear equation for each of the following
bombarding Ni60 with a proton to make Co57 bombarding N14 with a neutron to make C12 bombarding Cf250 with B11 producing 4 neutrons
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Practice Predict the other daughter nuclide and write a nuclear equation for each of the following
bombarding Ni60 with a proton to make Co57
bombarding N14 with a neutron to make C12 bombarding Cf250 with B11 producing 4 neutrons
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Chronic Effects
Low doses of radiation over a period of time
show an increased risk for the development of cancer
radiation damages DNA that may not get repaired properly
factors that affect the result of the exposure this biological effectiveness factor is the RBE, and the result is the dose in rems
rads x RBE = rems rem = roentgen equivalent man
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3. The more ionizing the radiation, the larger the effect of the radiation
Alpha > Beta > Gamma
4. The radioactive half-life of the radionuclide 5. The biological half-life of the element 6. The physical state of the radioactive material
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 101 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Probable Outcome
decreased white blood cell count; possible increased cancer risk radiation sickness; increased cancer risk death
103 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
use radioisotope with a short half-life use radioisotope that is low ionizing
beta or gamma
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 104 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Bone Scans
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teletherapy
use gamma radiation from Co60 outside to penetrate inside IMRT
radiopharmaceutical therapy
use radioisotopes that concentrate in one area of the body
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 108 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Insect control
sterilize males
Chemical analysis
neutron activation analysis
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 110 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photocopiers to help keep paper from jamming Sterilize cosmetics, hair products and contact lens
solutions and other personal hygiene products
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 112 Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.