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I. BUILDING A THEORY OF SLA 1. Domains and Generalizations 2. Hypothesis and Claims 3. Criteria for a Viable Theory II. AN INNATIST MODEL: KRASHENS INPUT HYPOTHESIS 1. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis 2. The Monitor Hypothesis. 3. The Natural Order Hypothesis 4. The Input Hypothesis 5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
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III. COGNITIVE MODELS 1. Mc Laughlins Attention Processing Model 2. Implicit and Explicit Models IV. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONGS INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS
SLA , among other things, not unlike first language acquisition, is a subject of general human learning, involves cognitive variations, is closely related to ones personality type, is interwoven with second culture learning, and involves interference, the creation of new linguistic systems, and the learning of discourse and communicative functions of language. All of these categories and the many subcategories subsumed under them form the basis for structuring an intergrated theory of SLA
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Cognitive variations
Communicative
functions
I. BUILDING A THEORY OF SLA Second language learning is a complex process. Complexity means that there are so many separate but interrelated factors within one intricate entity that it is exceedingly difficult to bring order and simplicity to that chaos (Larsen- Freeman, 1997)
1) A theory of SLA includes an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is, and for classroom contexts, what teaching is. 2) Knowledge of childrens learning of their first language provides essential insight to an understanding of SLA. 3) A number of important differences between adult and child learning and between first and second language acquisition must be carefully accounted for.
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4) Second language learning is a part of and adheres to general principles of human learning and intelligence. 5) There is tremendous variation across learners in cognitive style and within a learner in strategy choice. 6) Personality, the way people view themselves and reveal themselves in communication, will affect both the quantity and quality of second language learning.
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7) Learning a second culture is often intricately intertwined with learning a second language. 8) The linguistics contrast between the native and target language form one source of difficulty in learning a second language. But the creative process of forming an interlanguage system involves the learners in utilizing many facilitative sources and resources. Inevitable aspects of this process are errors, from which learners and teachers can gain further insight.
7) Learning a second culture is often intricately intertwined with learning a second language.
8) The linguistics contrast between the native and target language form one source of difficulty in learning a second language. But the creative process of forming an interlanguage system involves the learners in utilizing many facilitative sources and resources. Inevitable aspects of this process are errors, from which learners and teachers can gain further insight.
9) Communicative competence, with all of its categories, is the ultimate goal of learners as deal with function, discourse, register, nonverbal aspects of human interaction linguistic negotiation.
A theory of SLA is really an interrelated set of hypotheses and/or claims about how people become proficient in a second language.
(7) For most adult learners, acquisition stops fossilizes- before the learner has achieved nativelike mastery of the target language.
(4) The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning. (5) Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to interference from their first language
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3. Criteria for viable theory Freeman(1997) suggested several lessons from chaos theory that help us to design a theory of SLA. Below are her comments:
Freemans comments:
1. Beware of false dichotomies. 2. Beware of linear, causal approaches to theorizing 3. Beware of overgeneralization 4. Beware of reductionist thinking
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Longs criteria for a theory of SLA Michael Long offered 8 criteria for a comprehensive theory of SLA: 1. Account for universals 2. Account for environmental factors 3. Account for variability in age, acquisition rate, and proficiency level 4. Explain both cognitive and affective factors
Longs criteria for a theory of SLA 5. Account for form- focused learning, not just subconscious acquisition. 6. Account for variables besides exposure and input 7. Account for cognitive/ innate factors which explain interlanguage systematicity. 8. Recognize that acquisition is not a steady accumulation of generalizations.
1. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis - Adult second language learners have two means for internalizing the target language The first is acquisition, a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language, not unlike the process used by a child to pick up a language. The second means is a conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, and are generally aware of their own process.
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Fluency in second language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned. Our conscious learning processes and our subconscious acquisition processes are mutually exclusive: learning cannot become acquisition. Copyright Wondershare Software
- The monitor is involved in learning, not in acquisition. - It is a device for watchdogging ones output, for editing and making alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived.
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We acquire language rules in a predictable or natural order. (Following the earlier morpheme order studies of Dulay and Burt and others.)
Example: If an acquirer is at stage of level i, the input he or she understands should contain i+1.
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis - The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low and defensiveness absent, or in contexts where affective filter is low.
1. Mc Laughlin, a psychologist, commented: the terms conscious and unconscious in second language theory are too laden with surplus meaning and too difficult to define empirically to be useful theoretically. Hence, my critique of Krashens distinction between learning and acquisition a distinction that assumes that it is possible to differentiate what is conscious from what is unconscious.
3. Comprehensible input is the only causative variable in second language acquisition. In other words, success in a foreign language can be attributed to input alone. - It is important to distinguish between input and intake. - Krashen(1983) did suggest that input gets converted to intake through a learners process of liking forms to meaning and noticing gaps between the learners current internalized rule system and the new input.
- Mitchell & Myles (1998) have noted that processes are not clearly operationalized or consistently proposed.
- Seliger (1983) offered a much broader conceptualization of the role of input that gives learners more credit (and blame) for eventual success: High Input Generators (HIGs) and Low Input Generators (LIGs)
- Krashen (1997) staunchly maintained that in the language classroom output is too scare to make any important impact on language development.
- Swain & Lapkin (1995) offered convincing evidence that their Output Hypothesis was at least as significant as input.
- De Bot (1996) argued that output serves an important role in second languages acquisition because it generates highly specific input the cognitive system needs to build up a coherent set of knowledge.
Information processing
Controlled
( cell A) Performance based on formal rule learning (cell C) performance based on implicit learning or analogic learning
Automatic
( cell B) Performance in a test situation
Peripheral
Automatic processes
relatively permanent
Processing in a more accomplished skill- The hard drive of your brain can manage hundreds and thousands of bits of information simultaneously. a process of restructing
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Both two processes can occur with either focal or peripheral attention to the behavior in question. Many controlled processes are focal, some are peripheral. (child first language learning or the learning of skills without any instructions). Many automatic processes are peripheral, some are focal. (in the case of an accomplished pianist performing in a concert or an experienced driver paying particular attention to the road on a
foggy night)
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Every act of performing something, focal and peripheral attention actually occur simultaneously e.g. A very young child says to a parent Nobody dont like me Focal attention: conveying emotion, mental anguish or loneliness Peripheral attention: words and morphemes underlie the central meaning
PERIPHERAL
Child second language learning may consist of peripheral ( cells C and D) attention to language forms.
Most adult second language learning of language forms in the classroom involves a movement from cell A through a combination of C and B, to D (Dekeyser 1997) Peripheral, automatic attention- processing of the bits and pieces of language is a mainly communicative goal for language learners
Implicit knowledge is information that is automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks
Explicit models are the facts that a person knows about language and the ability to articulate those facts in some way.
e.g. children implicitly learn phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic rules for language, but do not have access to an explanation, explicitly of those rules
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Implicit processes enable a learner to perform language but not necessarily to cite rules governing the performance Bialystok later (1982) equated implicit and explicit with the synonymous terms unanalyzed and analyzed knowledge.
The Social constructivist perspectives emphasize the dynamic nature of the interplay between learners, their peers and their teachers and others with whom they interact
The interaction between learners and others is the focus of observation and explanation Copyright Wondershare Software
Michael Long (1985-1996) takes up where in a sense Krashen left off. He posits in what has come to be called the interaction hypothesis, that comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction.
Learners learn new forms in a language through the negotiation around meaning that occurs when they engage in communication and communicative learning activities.
Modified Interaction
IV. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONGS INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS But the native speakers often slow down speech to second Language learners (modifications also include comprehension checks) .
Ex: Go down to the subway do you know the word Subway ? and they explain the word Subway means. Or I went to a new Years Eve party, you know, the night before the first day of a new year. Copyright Wondershare Software
In Longs view: -Interaction and Input are two major players in the process of acquisition. - Conversation and other interactive communication are the basic for the linguistic rules. Further, Longs hypothesis center us on the language classroom that : not only as a place where learners of varying abilities and styles and background mingle but also as a place where the contexts for interaction are carefully designed Copyright Wondershare Software
INNATIST (Krashen)
CONSTRUCTIVIST (Long) Interaction hypothesis Intake through social interaction Output hypothesis (Swain)
Comprehensible input Restructuring (McL) (i+1) Implicit vs. explicit (B) Low affective filter
Natural order of acquisition zero option for grammar instruction Unanalyzed vs. analyzed knowledge(B)
HIGs (Seliger)
Authenticity Task-based instruction
Form-focused instruction
Theories are constructed by professors and researchers who hypothesize, describe, measure and conclude things about learners and learning and the teachers.
Practitioners are thought of as teachers who are out there in classroom everyday stimulating, encouraging, observing and assessing real-live learners.
The custom of leaving theory to researchers and practice to teachers has become dysfunctional (Clarke)
A practitioner/teacher is made to feel that he or she is the recipient of a researcher/theorists findings and prognostications, with little to offer in return.
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Researcher give many skills to teacher in: program developing, textbook writing, observing, measuring variables of acquisition applying technology to teaching.
Theory building
Strategic competence
Intercutural communicatio n
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1. Similarities and differences of statements or claims of Lightbown, Lassen Freeman and Yorio in a theory of SLA? Similarity: into consideration in a theory of SLA Differences: 1. Yorio: domains of consideration (9 statements) 2. Lightbown:
GROUP 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2. What are Krashens 5 input hypotheses? They are The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis The Monitor Hypothesis The Natural Order Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis 3. If an acquirer is at stage of level i, the input he or she understands should contain i+1. Why? The language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. The corollary to this is that input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed (this might be, say, i + 2), nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all (i + 0)