Urban Spatial Presentation Post 911 Perspective

A POST 9/11 PERSPECTIVE ON SEGREGATION, ENCLAVES AND GHETTOS
MELISSA AUWERTER ANDREW BENOIT ANDREW BOUGHAN NOELLE BRITT
Urban Spatial Theory
Spring 2013
Americas Ghettos
There is a significant body of work on the problems of
Americas ghettos
Continuing high levels of racial and income segregation, and the concentration of the poor in a small number of high-poverty areas Roots causes of residential segregationracial discrimination in housing and employment, and the loss of manufacturing jobs Adverse effects ghettos have on individuals (poor public services, lack of access to good jobs, lack of positive role models), and on cities (high-crime areas outward from city centers) Difficulties associated with poverty and minority deconcentration (suburban resistance to affordable housing developments)
Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.
The Ghetto-Enclave Paradigm

There is much less focus on the ethnic enclave
The events of September 11, 2011 call for a reevaluation
of these two terms and their connotations The ghetto-enclave paradigm
Ghettos are badnegative forms of residential segregation; people forced to live there; arising social tensions Enclaves are goodpositive forms of residential segregation; voluntary; assets to urban vitality
This paradigm is no longer valid because crime and
disorder exist in both these forms of segregation

Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.
Spatial Clustering
Spatial clustering is an inevitable part of urban life Ghettos Gated communities Ethnic enclaves Religious communities Senior citizen communities Involuntary and hierarchical clustering (derived from a
ranking systems that reflects superiority based on wealth, status, power, etc.) is undesirable and should public policy measures should address its flaws Voluntary, nonhierarchical clustering is more desirable
Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
What is Segregation? Formal Definitions

Clustering: concentration of a population group in space
Formation of any area of spatial concentration
Segregation: process by which a population group,
treated as inferior, is involuntarily forced to cluster in a defined spatial area
Process of the formation and maintenance of a ghetto

Racial ghettos
Racial Segregation: segregation based on race
Market Segregation: process that operates through the
real estate market which segregates lower income people into class ghettos
Formal Definitions (contd)

Exclusion: can be spatial or socioeconomic

Spatial exclusion is segregation Socioeconomic exclusion with segregation leads to the formation of an excluded ghetto
Quartering: division of urban space into quarters, based
on the income or wealth of households
Can create or reinforce segregation
Congregating: voluntary coming together of a population
group for self-protection and advancement of its own interests, other than through domination or exclusion
Process of the formation of an enclave

Withdrawal: voluntary and deliberate separation of a
socially and economically dominant population group

Reinforces segregation Process that leads to the in the formation of an exclusionary enclave Involved in the formation of citadel May be involved in the formation of an exclusionary enclave
Walling out: extreme physical form of withdrawal

Fortification: voluntary coming together of a population
for protecting, strengthening, and symbolizing dominance
Process of forming a citadel

Confinement: deliberate, intentional separating of a
socially and economically subordinate group and its restrictions to a specific location

Extreme social, economic, and/or legal form of segregation May be involved in the formation of a ghetto
Walling in: extreme physical form of confinement May be involved in the formation of a ghetto
Desegregation: elimination of barriers to free
mobility for residents of a ghetto Integration: intermixing of population groups
Ongoing, positive, nonhierarchical relationships

Enclave: an area of spatial concentration in which
members of a particular group congregate to protect and enhance their economic, social, political, and/or cultural development Exclusionary enclave: one whose members occupy positions of superior power, and excludes others from unauthorized entry Citadel: an area of spatial concentration in which members of particular population group, defined by its position of superior power, cluster to protect, display, and enhance that position

Cluster: an area of spatial concentration of a
population group Quarter: an area of spatial concentration based on the income or wealth of households Ghetto: an area of spatial concentration used by forced within the dominant society to separate and to limit a particular population group, defined as racial or ethnic or foreign, and held to be, and treated as, inferior by the dominant society
The Origins of Clustering and Segregation

Cities are and have been These dividing lines are
divided along a number of lines that form different patterns of clustering Many of these divisions reflect the conscious acts of those clustered or clustering, and those in power over of among them
based on:

Nationality Class Income Wealth Occupation Religion Race Color Ethnicity
Color Ethnicity Language Age Household composition o Personal cultural preferences o Lifestyle o o o o o
Lines of Division
Three important lines of division: 1) Culture
2) Functional economic role
3) Position in the hierarchy of power
Cultural Divisions
Easily discernibledifferences in language, clothing,
architecture style, etc.

Result in divisions by: Ethnicity Country or nationality Tribe of origin, parentage, or descent Religion or belief Lifestyle
Cultural Divisions (contd)

Cultural differences Are not dependent on
include:

Worship Music Parenting Language History Holidays Clothing Family relations
their economic productivity for their hold on people, nor do they require a relationship of superiority or inferiority for their strength
Functional Divisions
Divisions based on functional economic roles are the
result of either physical or organizational economic logic
E.g. Divisions between factories and residential areas
Some industries and occupations may require those
involved in them to live close to their jobs
Can lead to residential division (e.g. company-sponsored housing developments)
Functional divisions are independent of cultural
differences and express relationships of superiority or inferiority to other functions

Functional Divisions and Zoning

Zoning: division of a town or county into districts in which
certain activities are prohibited and others are permitted
The accepted legal embodiment of functional divisions
Zoning defined in terms of economic use isnt always
apparent Performance zoningdefines permitted land uses by their environmental impact (e.g. traffic generated, shadows cast, air circulation impeded, green space occupied, etc.) While use may separate manufacturing from retail from residential, it is not clear why residential use for one family should be different from the use by two or three families Separation by function is still viewed as the acceptable way to divide city spaces Varady. Desegregating the City, Chapter 1--Enclaves Yes, Ghettos No: Segregation and the State
OFlaherty, Brendan. 2005. City Economics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Zoning definition)
Hierarchical Status Divisions

Differences in hierarchical status reflect and reinforce
relationships of power, domination, exploitation, state service, etc.
Imperial enclave in a colonial town; black townships of South Africa
Class is the major dividing line Gated communities reflect and support power relationships
just as much as slums or working-class quarters Power can exist in multiple dimensions
Military power, political power, economic power, social power, legal power (slavery)
How Cultural, Functional, and Hierarchical Divisions Interact

Cultural, functional, and hierarchical divisions
intertwine, overlap, and contradict each other

Cultural divisions can reinforce status differences,
sometimes making it hard to distinguish between status and culture

Divisions of status and culture interfere with functional
division: groups differentiated by culture and status united by economic links need to work and live near each other for efficient production
How Cultural, Functional, and Hierarchical Divisions Interact (contd)

Relations between status and function conflict in spatial
impact: employers wanting workers to live close to work, but not close to them Differences in culture and statuswithin cultural groups, there can be major differences in class and economic function Because the role of space is not constant and is socially created, it complicates these divisions Social relations determine spatial relations, but spatial patterns do not always reinforce social relations
Conclusion
Clustering that reinforces hierarchical power relationships
is unacceptable, while social or cultural clustering is more acceptable Although cultural or functional divisions may be voluntary, they may not always be desirable The role of public policy in residential segregation should be:

To lessen the impact of the three divisions and reduce segregation To facilitate economic integration To increase opportunities To enrich culture To promote intercultural understanding
State and Federal Governments Role in Regards to Segregation
The States Role on Imposing Segregation

Divisions of function and culture are generally
voluntary -No group desires low status; it is imposed on them Those of higher status maintain their separation voluntarily; they need the means to impose low status on others (against their wills). -divisions by status require the use of force. (In a civilized society, this
is considered as a monopoly of the state)
Government action may (or may not) be involved in
regulating these cultural divisions

Ghettoization Fostered by the U.S.
Zoning ordinances enacted by local governments, explicitly allowing for certain areas to be occupied exclusively by whites.
-These were finally ruled unconstitutional in Buchanan v. Warley
The Urban Renewal Program,
Federal courts provided judicial enforcement for restrictive covenants

-this was a major device that excluded blacks from large parts of cities and confines them to areas with high percentages of blacks -Violated Civil Rights Act of 1866, and ruled unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in Shelley v. Kramer, U.S. I (1948)
Redlining- denial of mortgage financing to owners of property in certain designated areas.

-termed redlined and selected primarily because of the race of the residents
adopted under Title 1 of the housing Act of 1949 was the basis for slum clearance and redevelopment in the United States The federal highway construction program massively subsidized with federal funds after 1954 was a sign of developing white suburbs of the postwar years (whites saw moving to the suburbs as a motivation to escape the growing black population in downtowns) Whites with cars used highways to separate themselves from blacks
Measures Towards Combating Segregation
Expanded provision for public housing in different
urban areas (not just the ones with already a substantial subsidized rentals) Ex. In new developments, 30% of those new developments are provided as affordable units (managed by housing associations) Use of tax incentives to promote local economic development and job creation within a broad integrative framework.
Measures Towards Combating Segregation (Continued)

Intermunicipal agreements with respect to housing
low income housing (could be especially useful when dealing) Such agreements might be useful among cities and suburbs (lower income housing in the center of the cities while suburban environments house upper income populations towards the suburbs) Zoning and land use controls can be used to prohibit discrimination in loaning and to steer new construction and development to more stable areas. Control of Politian towards environmental advocates
The National Role in Imposing Segregation

The range of policies that might reduce segregation
should in fact include a wide variety of measures, in addition to the following listed would reduce inequality (the underlying cause of partitioning) In the long run, measures such as steeply progressive income taxes, protection of the rights of women are steeply progressive income taxes Ownership and control of economic activity, and environmental protection measures that take into account and just the distribution of burdens and benefits, would just reduce segregation.
Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
Introduction
Levels of Muslim segregation in many European
cities remain high Segregation is primarily voluntary, which makes government intervention difficult Muslim residential clustering seems to be hindering cultural integration due to the absence of social networks
Varady. Housing Studies, Muslim Residential Clustering and Political Radicalism
Introduction
The increasing Muslim population in Europe live
physically and culturally separate from their host country With the rise of Islamic terrorism, Muslim communities continue to live in fear and nervousness
Level of Segregation among European Muslim Immigrants

In the European cities of Birmingham and Bradford,
schools tend to be more segregated than residential neighborhoods
Schools reach tipping point, white parents withdraw their children and move away, other white families choose not to move into the neighborhood
Residential neighborhoods change more slowly Singles, young couples without kids, and empty-nesters are less affected by what happens in the local public schools
Causes of Muslim Segregation

Muslims often self-segregate in a voluntary manner Strong religious ties among Muslim immigrants leads to a desire to self-segregate
Muslim neighborhoods are comprised of mosques,
Muslim-oriented stores, and other ethno-cultural institutions In addition, these Muslim communities in Britain have shown a lower level of household income
Women are not allowed in the job market
Causes of Muslim Segregation

Discriminatory practices also account for Muslim
self-segregation

Many other sub-continent Indians are more dispersed Muslim cluster neighborhoods are easy to distinguish
High vacancy rates account for neighborhood ethnic
population change
Whites move out as they feel uncomfortable around foreigners, surrounding area has acquired poor reputation, and quality of schools decrease Area becomes even more desirable to new immigrants
Consequences of Muslim Ethnic Clustering

Ethnic enclaves have typically been beneficial to
immigrants
Provide greater access to churches, social welfare groups, and stores Obtain political influence, although continued clustering prevents societal cohesion Enclave-based firms provide better opportunities than the general labor market
Socio-Economic Outcomes
Neighborhoods influence individuals in positive and
negative ways
Low income residents can have middle-class role models and middle-class social networks Spatial separation can hinder residents socio-economic progress
Some theorists believe that the negative aspects of
ethnic enclaves outweigh the positive ones
Poorly educated, non-working, welfare dependent neighborhoods hinder the educational, professional, and employment prospects of immigrants in the neighborhood
Cultural Integration
Chicago School of Sociologist Ethnic concentrations of undesirable
Supports identity retention and stunt assimilation
Census Report for 1930-1950 Segregated groups less likely to become citizen or to speak English and have low intermarriage rates Segregation for Other Races Orthodox Jews self-segregate in order to remain within walking distance of a synagogue Black segregation is largely a product of racial discrimination by realtors, landlords, and financial institutions
Cultural Integration Cont.

Richard Descoing-Director of Paris Institute of Political
Science
Second generation immigrants often live in an environment that is outside the French culture
They are not in the proper social networks.
French High School Graduates Have opportunity to apply to premier school as a citizen
Few people from the working class are even aware that the opportunity exists.
Cultural Integration Resistance

Conservative Muslims Parents Perceive Sweden as immoral and atheistic
Send their children to intercultural school to stop their daughters from going to dances
Living in high-density ethnic clusters promotes the maintenance ethnic traditions
Can sometimes be inconsistent with the values of larger society
Social Pressures Might lead residents of an ethnic enclave to support the practice of honor killing
Where the father approves the murder of his daughter because she has dated or married a man considered unacceptable to the family
Racial Rioting
London Bombing
After Bombing News reports focused on immigrant enclaves as one of the possible causes Theodore Dalrymple
Many fundamentalist Muslims in GB and EU are going through identity crisis
Identity Crisis
Reasoning
One hand they are drawn to Western Culture, but at the same time they try to expunge everything that is non-Muslim from themselves Suicide bombing is therefore the way suicide bombers overcome the religious doubts with themselves.
Dalrymple Three Characteristics

Why its Difficult for Islam to Integrate into
Mainstream UK
Refusal to educate women in society that requires two sources of income to achieve prosperity The idea that one is already in possession of the final revealed truth, leading to an inherently superior way of life, inhibits adaptation to a more technically advanced society The hatred of Western society because it is decadent, materialistic and democratic, rather than theocratic
Solutions to Segregation
Two European Approaches to Ending Segregation Policies seek to cure segregation
Reduce the incidence of segregation
Aims to mitigate the effects of segregation
The Cure for Segregation Ethnic mixing through housing allocation
Renting housing through positive marking to live in the housing, through benign quotas, and dispersing minorities across renting stock These policies would not work in the US
Solutions to Segregation Cont.

Income Mixing Through Public Housing
Restructuring
Strongly endorsed in Europe
To produce an income mix at the neighborhood level
HOPE VI Practice in the United States
Involves the demolition of high-rise buildings and their replacement with townhomes and single family homes
Busing to Reduce School Segregation Questions whether the resulting demographic mixing would led to reduction in the social isolation of Muslim Children
Mitigating the Effects of Segregation

Community Development Improving existing social and physical conditions
As an alternative to public housing restructuring
If a community development results in a higher socioeconomic standard
Households probably relocate to other neighborhoods, thereby reproducing segregation
Anti-Crime Strategies Moraccan Fathers
Walk the streets to develop personal contact with high school dropouts Has been effective in reducing crime
Mitigating the Effects of Segregation

Community Cohesion
Decker & Rowland
Unrealistic to anticipate creating an overall sense of unity on ethnically diverse European housing estates
Realistic goal would be to create a sense of mutual trust between different ethnic communities
Primary obstacle is the language barrier
Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA

Prior to 9/11, Muslim and Sikh transit workers were allowed to wear
headdresses with no regulations. MTA established a brand or segregate policy due to security concerns
Muslim transit workers were required to brand the MTA logo on their headdresses, or face segregation This new policy forced Muslims and Sikhs to work out of the public view if they chose not to brand their turban
In 2005, Sikh Coalition filed charges of discrimination with the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission(EEOC). After seven long years, Sikhs and Muslims settled this historic federal lawsuit on May 30, 2012 As a result, Sikh and Muslim workers may now wear their religious headdresses freely.
The Sikh Coalition
Sikhs and Muslims vs. New York MTA
The Sikh Coalition
Muslim Discrimination Post 9/11

U.S. Government increased security measures and
immigration policies
Results of these policies destroyed the relationship between Muslims and U.S. Government
In addition to these legislative violations, Muslims have
faced physical abuse and social discrimination
In 2007, CAIR reported 1,900 complaints of abuse and violent crimes against Muslims increased by 52 percent between 2003 and 2004
With recent hate crimes, it is difficult for Muslims not to be
segregated due to fear Even ten years after 9/11, there are large debates concerning the construction of mosques around the nation
Ashley Moore. American Muslim Minorities: The New Human Rights Struggle
Sikh Community Target of Violence Ten Years Later

http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/12/ten_year
s_after_9_11_little
The New Public Spirit

Many important events have reshaped the fabric of
American life Although Muslim segregation has increased in the U.S., a new sense of community has emerged. Recent trends have pointed toward a new vision of community which is secular, public spirited, and oriented toward social responsibility
Bruce J. Schulman. The New Public Spirit

Before 9/11, Americans spoke about the U.S.
Government in a negative manner, calling for an end to the big government era. Since 9/11, public employees in Congress, the Pentagon, and the Post Office have emerged as heroes Despite concerns over security, Americans are seeking areas for informal social interaction and democratic exchange.

Americans realize they need to build civic
communities outside of the home and the marketplace They also realized that physical contact between different ethnicities and races had diminished An overwhelming sense of togetherness and national identity had swept through the nations after 9/11 As the desire for public space and social interaction increases, our nation continues to desegregate and become more diverse

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A POST 9/11 PERSPECTIVE ON SEGREGATION, ENCLAVES AND GHETTOS

MELISSA AUWERTER ANDREW BENOIT ANDREW BOUGHAN NOELLE BRITT

Urban Spatial Theory

Varady. Desegregating the City, Preface.

The Ghetto-Enclave Paradigm

of these two terms and their connotations The ghetto-enclave paradigm

This paradigm is no longer valid because crime and

disorder exist in both these forms of segregation

What is Segregation? Formal Definitions

Formation of any area of spatial concentration

Segregation: process by which a population group,

treated as inferior, is involuntarily forced to cluster in a defined spatial area

Process of the formation and maintenance of a ghetto

Racial Segregation: segregation based on race

Market Segregation: process that operates through the

Formal Definitions (contd)

Quartering: division of urban space into quarters, based

on the income or wealth of households

Can create or reinforce segregation

Congregating: voluntary coming together of a population

Process of the formation of an enclave

Formal Definitions (contd)

socially and economically dominant population group

Walling out: extreme physical form of withdrawal

Fortification: voluntary coming together of a population

for protecting, strengthening, and symbolizing dominance

Process of forming a citadel

Formal Definitions (contd)

mobility for residents of a ghetto Integration: intermixing of population groups

Ongoing, positive, nonhierarchical relationships

Formal Definitions (contd)

Formal Definitions (contd)

The Origins of Clustering and Segregation

Nationality Class Income Wealth Occupation Religion Race Color Ethnicity

architecture style, etc.

Cultural Divisions (contd)

Worship Music Parenting Language History Holidays Clothing Family relations

result of either physical or organizational economic logic

E.g. Divisions between factories and residential areas

Some industries and occupations may require those

involved in them to live close to their jobs

Can lead to residential division (e.g. company-sponsored housing developments)

Functional divisions are independent of cultural

differences and express relationships of superiority or inferiority to other functions

Functional Divisions and Zoning

certain activities are prohibited and others are permitted

The accepted legal embodiment of functional divisions

Zoning defined in terms of economic use isnt always

Hierarchical Status Divisions

relationships of power, domination, exploitation, state service, etc.

Imperial enclave in a colonial town; black townships of South Africa

How Cultural, Functional, and Hierarchical Divisions Interact

intertwine, overlap, and contradict each other

sometimes making it hard to distinguish between status and culture

How Cultural, Functional, and Hierarchical Divisions Interact (contd)

State and Federal Governments Role in Regards to Segregation

The States Role on Imposing Segregation

Government action may (or may not) be involved in

regulating these cultural divisions

Ghettoization Fostered by the U.S.

The Urban Renewal Program,

Federal courts provided judicial enforcement for restrictive covenants

Redlining- denial of mortgage financing to owners of property in certain designated areas.

Measures Towards Combating Segregation