Psikologi industri dalam organisasi

Prediksi BAHAN UAS Angela_Jesh

Working Hours
The 5-day, 40-hour week became the norm with the passage of FLSA in 1938 Nominal working hours and actual working hours rarely coincide Employees may spend no more than half the workweek actually performing job related tasks The longer the workday or workweek, the lower the productivity (also applies to overtime)

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Permanent Part-Time Employment

Part-time employment is the most widespread form of alternative work schedule
>25% of workforce holds part-time jobs

Part-time employment has grown faster than fulltime employment Actual working hours of part-time workers exceeds that of full-time Part-time is attractive to those with family responsibilities and to the aging and disabled

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The Four-Day Workweek

Usually involves 4 x 10 hr. days or 4 x 9 hrs.
Initiative usually comes from managements hopes for increased productivity, recruiting incentive, and reduced absenteeism

There is evidence of a positive impact on satisfaction, but no impact on absenteeism or rates of productivity
However, there is a general belief that it aids productivity

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Flexible Work Schedules

Flextime is a system of flexible working hours combining core mandatory work periods with elective work periods at the beginning and end of the day Advantages include avoidance of rush-hour, less absenteeism, more productivity, and satisfaction with the work schedule See www.familiesandwork.org

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 Management has recognized the importance of rest breaks since the Hawthorne studies Employees will take breaks whether sanctioned or not Results in higher morale and productivity and lower fatigue and boredom Rest pauses also reduce repetitive motion injuries May result in more positive attitudes toward management

Rest Breaks

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Shift Work
Usually three shifts : (7 AM - 3 PM), (3 PM - 11 PM), and (11 PM - 7 AM) Workers may be permanently assigned to a shift or they may rotate

About 25% of workers perform shift work

Workers tend to be less productive on night shift than day shift, and have more errors and accidents Disruption of normal sleep-wake cycle disrupts the body and requires recovery time Fewer problems occur with the fixed shift than with the rotating shift, even when fixed shift is at night

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Psychological and Social Issues

Job simplification Boredom and monotony Fatigue Ethnic harassment Gender and sexual harassment Telecommuting

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 Job simplification is the reduction of manufacturing jobs to the simplest components that can be mastered by unskilled or semi-skilled workers Advantages include efficiency, cost savings, and less training time required Disadvantages include less challenge, less satisfaction, lower morale, and lower quality Repetitive, simplified work can lead to cognitive deterioration usually associated with old age
Workers prone to absentmindedness and disorientation

Job Simplification

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Boredom and Monotony

Inevitable consequences of job fractionation and simplification Results in tiredness, restlessness, discontent, and a draining of interest and energy What is boring for one person may be exciting to another Motivation is the key Job enlargement, changes in activities, attention to physical environment, and a congenial informal workgroup help

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Fatigue
Psychological fatigue is similar to boredom Physiological fatigue is caused by excessive use of muscles Productivity negatively related to reported feelings of fatigue When the pace is gradual, workers can take on greater physical labor Rest periods should be prior to fatigue setting in Fatigue appears and disappears throughout the workday

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 Workplace is becoming increasingly demographically diverse Ethnic harassment is an obvious source of stress that negatively affects productivity, satisfaction, and emotional and physical health Manifested as overt behaviors or slurs, jokes, and derogatory comments Targets of verbal harassment reported lower sense of psychological well being

Ethnic Harassment

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Gender and Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment involves unwanted sexual attention and coercion Gender harassment refers to behavior that reflects an insulting, hostile and degrading attitude toward women in general
Does not necessarily involve sexual harassment

Studies link harassment to low satisfaction, high stress and increased use of mental health services Frequently goes unreported due to fear of reprisal Some disagreement on what constitutes harassment

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Telecommuting
Estimated that 23.6 million U.S. workers telecommute at least part time Advantages include reduced overhead Women are more productive than men in virtual offices Telecommuting is attractive to employees with dependent care problems or with disabilities Some people miss the social interaction or find home to be distracting or dislike never being away from the job Nearly 20% of telecommuting programs fail
One reason is that workers feel they are never free of the job

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Key Terms
Environmental psychology Flextime Job simplification Nominal working hours

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What is Stress?
Stress physiological and psychological responses to excessive and usually unpleasant stimulation and to threatening events in the environment Stress effects all levels of employees Stress is costly to employers and correlates positively with health care claims and costs Up to half of all physician visits are precipitated by stress
Many physical complaints may be psychosomatic

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Stress-Related Physical Problems

High blood pressure Ulcers Colitis Heart disease Arthritis Skin diseases Allergies Headaches Neck and lower back pain Increase in infectious diseases
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Occupational Health Psychology

The field of study dealing with the health effects of job stress and other aspects of well-being Proposed as a name in 1990 by Jonathan Raymond Focus group in the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy of Management APA launched formal development of the field with NIOSH
Started Journal of Occupational Health Psychology

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Physiological Effects of Stress

Adrenaline is released, blood pressure rises, heart rate increases, extra sugar is discharged into the bloodstream Males and females respond differently to stress
Male - fight-or-flight response Female - tend-and-befriend response

Prolonged exposure to stress leads to physical and psychosomatic illness Stress doesnt affect everyone the same way

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Job Satisfaction and Feelings of Control

Those with high job satisfaction suffer few harmful effects of stress Those with high levels of job dissatisfaction show considerable stressrelated effects Challenge-related stress includes time pressure and high levels of responsibility

Leads to fulfillment and achievement

Hindrance-related stress includes excessive job demands and constraints

Leads to frustration and low satisfaction

Top executives seem to handle stress better than middle managers have 40% fewer heart attacks

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Coping with Stress

High job satisfaction and control over working conditions reduce a persons susceptibility stress Social support helps coping with stress and a lack of social support correlates with heart disease Employees with high levels of skills and abilities are more resistant to stress Those in good general physical health suffer fewer negative effects from stressful working conditions

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Individual Differences in Stress Responses

Type A and Type B personalities Hardiness Self-efficacy Locus of control Self-esteem Negative affectivity Type of occupation Sex characteristics

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The Type A and B Personalities

Type A personality is characterized by high competitive drive and a constant sense of time urgency Friedman and Rosenham (1974) found that Type A personalities have been associated with heart disease, anger, hostility, time urgency, competitiveness, and depression Type B personalities are more relaxed, rarely have heart attacks before age 70, and experience less stress

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Hardiness
Hardiness is a personality variable based on the idea of control that may explain individual differences in vulnerability to stress. Components:
Hardy persons develop fewer physical complaints under highly stressful conditions than those who are not hardy How does this differ from locus of control?
Control Commitment Challenge

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Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is our belief in our ability to accomplish a specific task It is our sense of how adequate, efficient, and competent we feel about coping with lifes demands Two levels of self-efficacy:
traditional - individual-focused collective - group-focused

Those with high levels of self-efficacy feel more control and are more stress resistant

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Locus of Control
Locus of control (LOC) refers to belief about how much influence individuals have on the forces and events that shape their lives Internal locus of control
Those who believe that job performance, pay, and promotions are under their control and dependent on their own behavior

External locus of control

Those who believe that life is outside their control

High Internal LOC correlates with less stress

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Self-Esteem
Self-esteem refers to how we feel about ourselves Organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) is a personality dimension relating to our assessment of our adequacy and worth with regard to our place in the employing organization High OBSE see themselves as important, effective and worthwhile People low in OBSE are more affected by stress and are more passive in coping with it

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Negative Affectivity
Negative affectivity (NA)
A Big 5 personality dimension characterized by a generalized life and job dissatisfaction and by a focus on negative aspects of events

Closely related to neuroticism People high in NA are likely to experience distress and dissatisfaction in all areas of life Research results are mixed

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Type of Occupation
High stress jobs include laborer, secretary, clinical laboratory technician, nurse, first-line supervisor, restaurant server, machine operator, farm worker, and miner Also stressful: police officer, firefighter, computer programmer, computer programmer, electrician, plumber, and social worker College professor is one of the least stressful

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Sex Differences
Women consistently report higher levels of stress than men
Also more headaches, anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, and eating disorders Also more likely to smoke, drink and use drugs in response to workplace stress But more likely to use social support networks to cope

Women in highly stressful jobs more prone to spontaneous abortion and shorter menstrual cycles Women homemakers experience higher levels of stress than those in paid positions

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Work-Family Conflicts
Both men and women report conflicts, but the difficulties are usually greater for women Stresses of work-family conflict are independent of type of job and working conditions Employed women enjoy better health than those who stay at home Presence of women managers increases organizational responsiveness to work-family conflicts: flexible scheduling, supportive supervisors, FMLA absence and maternity leave

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Causes of Stress in the Workplace

Work overload and work underload Organizational change Role ambiguity and role conflict Other stressors

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Work Overload and Underload

Work overload results if there is too much work to perform in the time available (quantitative), or work that is too difficult for the employee to perform (qualitative) Work underload results from work that is too simple or insufficiently challenging for ones abilities Both conditions are positively correlated with stress

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Organizational Change
Organizational change is stressful Those who view change as exciting and a challenge are less vulnerable than those who resist change or view it as a threat Older workers experience increased stress with the increase in younger worker and ethnic diversity which brings to the workplace unfamiliar habits and cultural values Introduction of employee participation in decision making can be stressful for higher-level managers

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Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict

Role ambiguity results when job responsibilities are unstructured or poorly defined Components of role ambiguity
Performance criteria Work method Scheduling

Role conflict results when there is a disparity between job demands and the employees personal standards

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Other Stressors
Supervisors and managers Problems of career development Taking responsibility for subordinates Working under a deadline Having to fire a subordinate Other stress carriers Assembly line work Computer-controlled performance monitoring Cataclysmic events (e.g., September 11)

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Effects of Stress in the Workplace

Research has linked stress to long-term psychological and behavioral consequences, including tension, depression, anxiety, spousal and child abuse, and overt hostility in the workplace Other effects include
Mass psychogenic illness Burnout Workaholism

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 Mass psychogenic illness is a stress-related disorder manifested in a variety of physical symptoms Popularly called assembly-line hysteria Typically afflicts more women than men, strikes suddenly and spreads swiftly Dizziness, nausea, trouble breathing Social isolation,work-related stress, and poor working conditions may be factors

Mass Psychogenic Illness

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Burnout
Burnout is a condition of job stress that results from overwork
Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Reduced sense of accomplishment

Burnout victims tend to become rigid about their work, following rules and procedures compulsively Characterized by exhaustion, apathy, depression, irritation, and boredom; work quality deteriorates but not necessarily quantity

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Burnout
Measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory

Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Sense of accomplishment Personal involvement

Women managers show more intense effects than men Those under 40 more likely to experience burnout Burnout victims may feel insecure and have unfulfilling personal lives, and lack selfesteem and personal recognition off the job Higher among Type As, external LOCs and those low in hardiness and self -esteem

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Workaholism
A workaholic is an employee who is addicted to work stemming from anxiety and insecurity, or because of a genuine liking for the job Workaholics can be a source of stress to others Healthy workaholics are said to be high in Job Engagement Unhealthy workaholics are highly involved but derive little satisfaction from their work Compulsive addiction to work can lead to negative situations (e.g., too controlling, rigid thinking, and hard on colleagues and subordinates)

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Treating Stress in the Workplace

Organizational techniques
Alter the organizational climate Provide treatment under employee assistance programs (EAP)

Individual techniques
Relaxation training relax one part of body after another Biofeedback monitor physiological responses to stress and use results to control responses Behavior modification involving the conditioning of positive emotional responses to stressful events

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Organizational Techniques
Controlling the organizational climate by allowing for participation Providing control Defining employee roles Eliminating work overload and underload Providing for social support Bringing pets to work Providing stress-management programs Providing fitness programs

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Key Terms
Biofeedback Burnout Hardiness Job engagement Locus of control Mass psychogenic illness Negative affectivity Occupational heal psychology Organization-based self esteem Relaxation training Role ambiguity Role conflict Stress Type A & Type B personalities Work overload Work underload Workaholism

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Workplace Health and Safety

5000 accidental deaths annually
90% male

In excess of 4 million disabling injuries annually Staggering costs to organizations Health of workers is harmed by toxic chemicals and workplace conditions Accidents are the primary cause of death on the job & murder is second

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Work-Related Health Problems

10 million workers are exposed daily to chemicals EPA identified 16,000 toxic chemical substances in the workplace

150 of these are neurotoxins

Sealed office buildings may be unhealthy Many workers are exposed to asbestos, radiation, pollutants, or even cotton dust Occupational asthma is the most common work-related respiratory disorder

15% of asthma sufferers acquired their disease from exposure to job-related chemicals
Job related cancers are on the increase

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 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established in Department of Labor to assure safe and healthy working conditions Tasked with developing and enforcing federal safety standards and sponsoring associated research OSHA is poorly funded and unable to fulfill its mandate
There are so few inspectors that the average company can expect to be visited only once every 84 years

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

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Employee Accident Statistics

The definition of an accident depends on whether the worker misses time from work There is an almost universal failure to understate the number of accidents and injuries Incomplete recording makes research difficult To preserve a good safety record and public image, companies resort to closed-door investigations, and distortion of facts

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 Human error is responsible for most accidents Workplace factors contributing to accidents
Type of industry Hours of work Lighting Temperature Equipment design Safety devices Social pressure

Causes of Accidents

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Type of Industry
High in frequency and severity of accidents: highway construction, timber, & mining Low in frequency and severity: warehousing, automobile & aircraft manufacturing, and communications Some industries report few, but severe, accidents: e.g., electric utilities Some have high accident rates, but not severe: wholesale and retail

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Hours of Work
Fewer accidents occur during the night shift than during the day shift
But night shift accidents tend to be more severe

Illumination may be an issue

Artificial lighting at night may be better to work in than natural lighting conditions during the day

The more overtime worked, the greater the safety problems

Research does not provide clear support for this idea

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