Lecture Two

Introduction to noise pollution (II) & Fundamentals of the atmosphere

Road Traffic Noise

Sources - power train noises and rolling noises
Power unit noises
Such as engine, air inlet, exhaust, and cooling system.

Rolling noises
Such as wind turbulence and tire/road surface, brakes, rattles, and load.

Power train vs. rolling noise

Road Speed (km/h) 20 Vehicle class Heavy* Light 80 Heavy Light Rolling noise dB(A) 61 58 79 76 Power unit noise dB(A) 78 64 85 74 Total noise dB(A) 78 65 86 78

Note - * Heavy vehicles are > 1525 kg unladen weight

Rolling noise contributes little to the total noise for heavy vehicles operating at low speeds. For cars running at a speed > 60 km/h, rolling noise is the dominant noise source.

Power unit noise

Combustion Engine noise
mainly concerned with diesel engines.

Mechanical Engine noise

mainly from piston slap, bearing noise, gear and timing drive noise, valve train impact noise, fuel injection pump and injector noise.

Fan noise
Significant for large commercial vehicles

Transmission noise
Not an important source of noise under normal conditions

Wind turbulence and other noise

Wind turbulence noise
generally not significant source of external noise at normal road speeds. but lower frequency wind flutter can be trouble some due to resonance of the air space inside a car as air streams past an open window.

Brake squeal
can be a significant source of noise.

Tire / road noise

The most important component is that generated by action of the vehicles tire rolling over the road surface. The main factors affecting tire noise are the speed of rotation of the tire type of tread pattern and material texture applied to the road surface (which has a bigger effect)

Road Tire noise

Railway Noise
The structure of a railway consists of train, track and roadbed.
Noise sources include
rolling noise engine noise body vibration of a train the structure on the ground

The rolling noise

generated from the interaction between the wheel and rail.

Railway Noise
There is a wide range of parameters affecting the noise level of the railway system
types of locomotive propulsion system the compressors, motor generators, brakes etc. the interaction of the wheels and rails the noise radiated by vibrating structure such as steel bridges, the speed of train and its length. The generated airborne noise radiated into community, also ground borne noise and vibration which travels through the track, support structure and the intervening soil to nearby buildings.

Type of trains in Hong Kong

Wheel absorber to reduce squeal noise

Wheel absorber to reduce rolling and squeal noise

Insulator for Light Rail

Base Plate Pad

Elastic sleeper pad and rubber boot

Insulation mat

Construction Noise
Impact noise
Piling Hand-held breaker Excavator mounted breaker Vibration hammer.

Engine noise
Compressors Generators Trucks

Sound power levels of percussive piling

Piling Method* and Pile Type Diesel hammer driving pre-stressed concrete pile Diesel hammer driving steel pile Diesel hammer driving steel sheet pile Drop hammer driving concrete pile Drop hammer driving steel pile Drop hammer driving steel sheet pile Hydraulic hammer (double acting) driving pre-stressed concrete pile Hydraulic hammer (double acting) driving steel pile Hydraulic hammer (double acting) driving steel sheet pile Hydraulic hammer (single acting) driving pre-stressed concrete pile Hydraulic hammer (single acting) driving steel pile Hydraulic hammer (single acting) driving steel sheet pile Internal drop hammer Pneumatic or steam hammer (double acting) driving steel sheet pile Pneumatic or steam hammer (single acting) driving steel pile Sound Power Level (dB(A)) 128 132 132 116 126 129

126
129 129 122 126 126 113 135 130

Legislation
Piling work:
5 hours per day max (daytime 07:00 19:00)

General construction work:

Nighttime permit after 19:00

Product label:
Noise level specified for the product

Chemical Composition
Constituent Chemical Formula Percent by Volume Parts per Million by Volume

Nitrogen
Oxygen Argon

N2
O2 Ar Ne He Kr H2 Xe N2O H2O CO2 CH4 CO O3 NH3 NO2 SO2 H2S

78.084
20.946 0.934 18.2 5.2 1.1 0.5 0.09 0.3 0.01-7 0.036 1.72 0.11 0.02 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.00005

Constant

Neon Helium Krypton Hydrogen Xenon Nitrous oxide

Varied temporally and spatially

Water vapor Carbon dioxide Methane Carbon Monoxide Ozone Ammonia Nitrogen dioxide Sulfur dioxide Hydrogen sulfide

1. Raw material for green plants to make food molecules.

2. Greenhouse gases

Ideal Gas Law

W PV nRT RT M W PM V RT
Where = density of gas, kg/m3
P = absolute pressure, kPa V = volume of gas, litre (L) W = weight of gas, gram M = molecular mass, grams/mole T = absolute temperature, K R = universal gas constant = 8.3143 J/Kmole

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

P t = P 1 + P 2 + P3 + Where Pt = total pressure of mixture

P1, P2, P3 = pressure of each gas if it were in container alone, that is, partial pressure
It may also be written in terms of the ideal gas law: RT RT RT Pt n1 n2 n3 ... V V V RT (n1 n2 n3 ...) V

Units of Measure
Concentration the amount (mass, moles, molecules, etc) of a substance in a given volume divided by that volume. The example concentration units are mg/m3, mol/m3, molecules/cc, and etc. Mixing ratio the ratio of the amount of the substance in a given volume to the total amount of all constituents in that volume.

Expressions of Mixing Ratio

Mixing ratio: based on volume-volume ratios
1 ppmv = 1 ppbv = 1 pptv = 1 gas volume

106 air volume

1 gas volume 109 air volume

1 gas volume
1012 air volume

Concentration Expressions
Metric unit: expressed as mass per unit volume
microgram per cubic meter (g/m3) milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3)

Important!

Conversion between the two units

X (ppbv) = Y (g/m3)

62.36 M

T P

M is molecular weight of the pollutant R = 62.36 (mm Hg-L)/(mol-K) P is pressure (mmHg) T is temperature (K) at reference, respectively
Standard condition: 760 mmHg; 25 C

The electromagnetic spectrum

Adapted from The Atmosphere, Eighth edition, by F. Lutgens and Tarbuck, Prentice Hall

Solar radiation spectra

Solar radiation at the top and bottom of the earths atmosphere (blackbody radiation at ~ 6000 K) O2, O3 and H2O absorbing some portions of the radiation Radiation concentrated in the visible light region (green)

Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Methane (CH4) Ozone (O3) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Greenhouse gases are relatively transparent to shortwave ultraviolet light from the sun. But they absorb and emit longwave radiation. They let in shortwave radiation from the sun that heats the ground surface. They restrict the loss of heat by radiation from the ground surface.

Air pollution
Clear air becomes polluted when it is changed by addition of particles, gases or energy forms such as heat, radiation, or noise so that the altered atmosphere is less useful to mankind or poses some harm because of its impact on weather, climate, human health, animals, vegetation and materials.

Natural and Anthropogenic pollution

Natural Pollution

Volcanic eruption:
particulate matter, SO2, H2S smokes, hydrocarbon, CO, CO2, NOx

Wild forest fires: Emission from trees, lightning

1. levels of pollutants are normally low 2. often far from large population 3. transient (short-term)

Anthropogenic Pollution
Significant environmental problem because of its impact on human health and welfare

Effects of air pollutants

1. Effects on materials Mechanisms of deterioration Abrasion large enough size solid particles with high enough speed Deposition and removal For most surfaces, it is the cleaning process
that causes the damage.

Direct chemical attack oxidation/reduction reactions Indirect chemical attack pollutants are absorbed and then react with
some component of the absorbent to form a destructive compound.

Electrochemical corrosion results from the potential that develops in

the microscopic batteries.

Factors that influence deterioration

Moisture essential for most of the mechanisms of deterioration to occur. Temperature higher air temperatures generally result in higher reaction rates. Sunlight Oxidation effect of its UV wave lengths, providing energy for pollutant formation and cyclic reformation. Position of the exposed material - Vertical or horizontal or at some angle affects deposition and wash-off rates; - Upper or lower surface may alter damage rate

2. Effects on vegetation NO2 - inhibit plant growth and produce surface spotting.

SO2 cause surface spotting and bleaching.

Air pollutants reduce the surface area > lead to less growth and small fruit reduction in income for the farmer.

Cause early death of vegetation

Fluoride deposition on plants causes them damage and results in a second untoward effect

3. Health Effects Caused by Air Pollution

4. Effects on visibility

Yosemite Valley, visual range 234 km

Yosemite Valley, visual range 35 km

Primary versus Secondary air pollutants

Primary: the pollutants directly from sources of emissions,
such as NO, SO2 and CO

Secondary: the pollutants that are formed through chemical reactions of the primary pollutants,
such as O3 and H2SO4

Criteria and non-criteria air pollutants

Criteria pollutant
those for which ambient air quality standards have been set: NO2, SO2, CO, O3, PM10 and Lead (Pb)

Non-criteria pollutant
those other contaminants designated as toxic or hazards (e.g. benzene) and have been studied in industrial hygiene environments

Hong Kong Air Quality Objectives (HKAQO) g/m3

Air Pollutants Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Carbon monoxide Ozone Total suspended particulate Respirable suspended particulates Lead 1-hour 800 300 30000 240 ---8-hour --10000 ----24-hour 350 150 --260 180 -3-month ------1.5 1-year 80 80 --80 55 --

Sources and sinks of air pollutants

Sources: the places from which pollutants emanate. Sinks: the places to which pollutants disappear from the air.
Hundreds of air pollutants found in the atmosphere Only a small number of them identified as being at levels significantly enough to pose a threat to human health and welfare Carbon (C) oxides Sulfur (S) compounds Nitrogen (N) compounds Hydrocarbon (HCs) and their derivatives Photochemical oxidants (O3 etc) Halogenated hydrocarbon Particulate matter It is important to know the sources, atmosphere conversions, sinks of these compound.

 CO:

Carbon Oxides: CO and CO2

2C+ O2 2CO

colorless, odorless, and tasteless, mainly from the incomplete burning of fossil fuel and other organic matter:
(CO is a major air pollutant because of its health effects, and is regulated under an ambient air quality standard.)

Sources:
transportation, solid waste disposal, agricultural burning, and steel production; (Natural sources include CH4 and HCs oxidation, forest fire,
microbial processes in ocean and soil.)

Sinks
chemical reaction with OH in the air (CO+ OH CO2 + H) and uptake by microorganisms

Carbon Oxides: CO and CO2

CO2:
relatively nontoxic but contributes to climate warming CO2 has been increasing in the past 50 years due to the large use fossil fuel. It is a major greenhouse gas.

Source:
produced from when organic matter is burned, weathered, or biologically decomposed.

combustion of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and biomass burning.

C + O2 CO2

Sinks
uptake by plants (photosynthesis) and oceans.

Sulfur compounds: SO2

SO2
colorless with odor SO2 has important health and environmental implications, and is regulated under an air quality standard.

Source:
mainly from burning of sulfur containing fossil fuel such as coal and oil, as well as roasting metal sulfide ores in steel and iron industries. (Major natural source is volcanoes and oxidation of reduced S compounds.)

Sinks:
by wet and dry deposition and conversion to H2SO4 and sulfate (then removed from wet and dry deposition)

SO2 + OH HOSO2 HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3 SO3 + H2O H2SO4

Nitrogen compounds:
N2, N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O5, HNO3, HNO2, CH3COO2NO2, NO3, HCN, NO3-, NO2-, NH4 Nitrous Oxide(N2O): colorless, nontoxic, slightly sweet, relatively non-toxic (widely used as an anesthetic), greenhouse gas produced naturally from soils by anaerobic bacteria. It can dessociate by short UV in the stratosphere to produce NO, thus can influence ozone in the stratosphere.

Nitrogen compounds:
Nitric Oxide (NO):
colorless, odorless, tasteless, and relatively nontoxic; important in smog chemistry

Source:
high temperature combustion from automobile exhaust and stationary sources such as power plants; (Major natural source is anaerobic biological processes in soil and water.)

N2+O2 2NO
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): colored as light yellowish at low concentrations to reddish at high concentrations, it is toxic and corrosive gas. (NO and NO2 play important roles in smog pollution and climate change.)

Hydrocarbons and oxygenated HCs

Sources:
Anthropogenic
In major urban areas, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline spillage and evaporation, solvent use are often the major sources. Oxygenated HCs can be emitted from vehicle exhaust as well as produced during the atmospheric oxidation of HCs.

Natural
emissions from forest trees (mainly isoprene and monoterpenes), grassland (light alkanes and higher HCs) soils (mainly ethane), and ocean water (alkenes and C9-C28 alkanes).

Photo Courtesy of Richard Weisser and smokyphotos.com

Hydrocarbons and Oxygenated HCs

Sink
through the oxidation on reaction with OH (hydroxyl radical) and O3 to form various aldehydes and acids which are in turn removed from the atmosphere by wet and dry deposition.
The oxidation processes involved on the degradation of HC and oxy-HCs are very complex. They are very important in smog chemistry that are responsible for the formation of major photochemical oxidants including O3.

The atmosphere is a giant photoreactor

Emissions of : Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Light hydrocarbons, alcohols, carbonyls, acids, halogenated HC - carbonyls

+ hn + O2

- peroxides - Ozone - organic nitrates - organic aerosols

and NO + NO2 = NOx

Photochemical Smog
In both developed and developing countries, the major threat to clean air is posed by traffic emissions in summer.

The archetype is the Los Angeles photochemical smog, first described in 1948 and now plaguing cities from Athens to Mexico City.

Ozone Sinks
1. Surface destruction or deposition
- reaction with plants, bare land, ice and snow, and man-made structures - deposition of O3 is at its greatest over forests and croplands during daylight hours.

2. Photochemical reactions
-photodissociation on absorption of UV light and subsequent formation of OH radicals.

- In polluted atmosphere, O3 reacts with NO to produce NO2 + O2

- during nighttime hours, it reacts with NO2 to produce HNO3

Particulate Matter
Particulate matter is a collective term used to describe small solid and liquid particles in the atmosphere. It is of a major air-quality concern because it is
1) 2) 3) an inhalation hazard to humans and animals, reduces visibility, affects climate on regional and global scales.

Particle size is a very important characteristics because it determines atmospheric lifetime, effects on light scattering, deposition in human lungs.

Most atmospheric particles are very small (<0.1 m), whereas most aerosol mass is associated with particles > 0.1 m.

Bacteria: 10 m

Road Dust: 5 m

Coal Dust: 2 m
Human Hair: 100 m

Viruses: 0.4 m

Vehicle Emission: 0.2 m

Relative Particle Size

Particulate Matter
Source
Primary
Natural volcanoes, forest fires, ocean sprays, biologic sources (mold, pollen, bacteria etc.) Anthropogenic transportation, fuel combustion in stationary sources, and other activities such as industrial processes, construction and agricultural

activity

Secondary
from chemical processes involving gases, aerosol particles and moisture

Particulate Matter
Chemical composition:
major components include organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC), sulfate, nitrate, and a variety of trace metal. In Hong Kong, C ~ 50% of PM10 mass; sulfate ~17%, nitrate~6%

Sink:
wet and dry deposition

Summary
Some basic knowledge on the atmosphere, including chemical composition, radiation by sun and earth, and thermal structure of the atmosphere. Properties, sources and sinks of major air pollutants such as carbon oxides, sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds and hydrocarbons. These can come from very complex sources, including natural and man-made, primary and secondary. Photochemical oxidants and particulate matter. Chemical reactions can be very complicated for photochemical oxidants.

Understanding of above fundamental aspects is important for the management of air pollution.