PNRA Course on

Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
1
Lecture 1
CHARGED PARTICULATE
RADIATION SOURCES
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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SOURCES/ORIGIN OF RADIATION
Radiation
Types
Charged
Particulate
Radiation
Uncharged
Radiation
Heavy
Charged
Particles
Light
Charged
Particles
Electro-
magnetic
Radiation
Neutrons
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Light charged particles
Beta decay
Beta negative
Beta positive
Electron capture (Competitive process)
Internal conversion electrons
Auger electrons
Heavy charged particles (m > 1 amu)
Proton
Alpha particle
Fission fragments
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Electromagnetic radiation
Gamma rays following radioactive decay
Annihilation radiation
Gamma rays follow N-reaction
Bremsstrahling
X-rays
Neutrons
Fast neutrons
Slow neutrons
Thermal neutrons

PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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LIGHT CHARGED PARTICLE SOURCES
Light
Charged
Particles
Beta
Decay
Internal
Conversion
Electrons
Auger
Electrons
Beta
Negative
Beta
Positive
Electron
capture
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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LIGHT CHARGED PARTICLES
Beta (|) Decay
It is a process of emission of a charged
particle (-ve or +ve) from the nucleus of an
atom whose mass is equal to that of an
electron.
The emission of -vely charged electron
(negatron) from the nucleus is |

decay
The emission of +vely charged electron
(positron) from the nucleus is called |
+

decay
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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The |

decay process is given as follows:

and |
+
decay process is given as follows:


where X and Y are the initial and final nuclear
species, u and u

are neutrino and antineutrino,

and Q represents the amount of energy released
in the decay process, called the Q-value of the
reaction
Q=(M
X
+M
e
-M
Y
) amu
The Q-value is shared between | particle
and u or u
-
1
A A
Z Z
X Y Q | u
+
+ + +
1
A A
Z Z
X Y Q | u
+
+ + +
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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| particle Energy
Continuous spectrum
E
max
= Q value




Negligible energy is taken by the recoil
nucleus
Accompanying process of beta decay is the
emission of Bremsstrahlung
max
3
1
E E =
X e
e
M M
Q
E
/ 1+
=
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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|
-
Decay
A neutron in the nucleus is converted into a
proton

Example

Q e p n + + = +

u |
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
) (
u | + +

0
1
3
2
3
1
He H
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Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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|
+
Decay
A proton in the nucleus is converted into a
neutron
Example
Q e n p + + = +
+
u |
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
) (
u | + +
0
1
11
5
11
6
B C
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Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Accompanying process of |
+
decay
Electron capture
Annihilation of positron and electron


PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Electron capture
An atom shell electron is capture by the nucleus
Example


Q n e p + + +

u
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
u + +

Li e Be
7
3
0
1
7
4
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Annihilation
A positron Annihilates with and electron

MeV 511 . 0 MeV 511 . 0
) (
1
-
+
+
e |
PNRA Course on
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Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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Internal Conversion Electrons
Conversion Process
The process in which the energy of an excited
nucleus state is transferred to an atomic
electron ejecting it from
the atom
PNRA Course on
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Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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IC Electron Energy
Energy of internal conversion electron


where E
e
- is kinetic energy of electron, E
B
is binding
energy of the electron in its atomic shell
Energy spectrum
Electron is emitted with
discrete energy as is
shown in figure
*
B
Ee E E =
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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IC Electron conti.
Conversion coefficient


where N
e
is number of conversion electrons and N

is number of competing gamma photons
Associated processes
X-rays
From vacancy filling
Bremsstralung
From electron slowing
Ne
N

o =
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Auger Electrons
The process in which
the excitation energy
of an atom is
transferred to atomic
shell electrons
This process is in
completion with
emission of X-rays
The process is favored
in low Z-materials
Electron energy is
discrete in nature
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
18
HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLE
SOURCES
Heavy
Charged
Particles
Protons
Alpha
Particles
Fission
Fragments
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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Protons
There is no radionuclide that decay by
proton emission
Protons are produced as a result of nuclear
reactions
There is not any laboratory proton source

PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Alpha (o) Decay
An alpha particle is a highly energetic
helium nucleus that is emitted from the
nucleus of the radioactive isotope when the
neutron-to-proton ratio is to low
It is positively charged, massive particle,
consisting of two protons and two neutrons
Almost all the naturally occurring alpha
emitters are heavy elements with Z > 83
PNRA Course on
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Dr. Muhammad Tufail
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Alpha (o) Decay Process
The decay process is written schematically
as follows:

where X and Y are initial and final nuclear species
The principal features of alpha decay are
can be learnt from the following example




4 4
2 2
A A
Z Z
X Y Q o

+ +
226 226 4
88 86 2
Ra Rn Q o
-
+ +
( )
226
86
0.186
r
Rn r E MeV +
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Alpha particle energy
Energy of alpha
particle
Mono energetic
Discrete energy
spectrum
Energy relation with
half life
Alpha particles with
the highest
energies are those
with shortest half
life
1
x
Q
E
m
M
=
+
PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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Spontaneous Fission
The fission process is the only
spontaneous source of energetic heavy
charged particles with mass greater than
that of the alpha particle.
The most widely used laboratory source is
252
Cf



Effective half life is 2.65 y.
Q Y X
y
+ + o
65 . 2
Q s s n Z Y X
y
+ + + + ' '
85

PNRA Course on
Radiation Safety
Dr. Muhammad Tufail
(Izaz-i-Fazeelat)
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SF Conti.
Each fission gives rise
to two fission
fragments, which by
conservation of
momentum are emitted
in opposite direction.
Mass and energy
distributions are shown
by figures