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Reference: 1.L. Cromwell, F.J. Weibell and E.A. Pfeiffer: Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd Edition. 2.R S Khandpur: Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation, 2nd Edition.
Processor
Transducer Modulator Exciter Carrier
Tuner
Demodulator
Tape Recorder
Receiver Antenna
RF Amplifier
Subcarrier Modulator
Demodulator
Tape Recorder
ECG Electrodes
ECG Amplifier
Graphic Recorder
Battery
Cardioscope
Pre amplifier
Frequency Modulator
Audio Amplifier
Demodulator
37,102,153,159,220& 450MHz.
Reason:
blood. Packed Cell Volume: The percentage of cells in the blood is called PCV.
Elements of blood:
1.Plasma(55%) 2.Blood cells(45%) Types of Blood Cell: 1.RBC or Erythrocyte(5.5 million per cubic mm) 2.WBC or Leucocytes(5-10 thousand per cubic mm) 3.Platelets or Thrombocytes(250-750 thousand per cubic mm)
Disease
Anemia : Anemia is the reduction of oxygen carrying capacity of blood. Bone marrow dysfunction. Poor production rate of RBC. Change in number, volume or Hb concentration of RBC Identified by measurement of packed cell volume. Dengue Fever: Dengue fever causes the reduction of platelet in the blood. Identified by the number of platelet count.
platelets.
AB
X-rays
Definition :X-rays are the electromagnetic radiation located at the low
wavelength end of electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Frequency: 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz . Wavelength: 0.01 to 10 nanometer. Energy : 120 eV to 120 keV. Speed: 3108 m/s.
Exposure.
Units:
Coulomb per kilogram. Rontgen: 1R=2.58 104 C/Kg
RAD: D=fR.
REM: REM=RADQF.
X-ray Tubes
Production of X-ray:
decelerated.
When fast moving electron suddenly
Visualization of X-Ray
X-Ray can be visualized by producing an image of the intensity distribution after passing through body. There are 3 techniques:
1.Fluoroscopy. 2.X-Ray films. 3. Image Intensifiers.
Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy: An imaging technique to obtain a real time moving image
of the internal structures of patient with fluoroscope.
X-ray Film
X-ray film are sandwiched between two screen & available in cassette. Component & Operating Principle:
One side is thin transparent plastic easily penetrate by X-rays. Other side is coated with photosensitive material. X-rays affect the photographic film as like as light.
Image Intensifiers
The image intensifiers can be used to brighten faint image on fluoroscopic screen.
Contains a fluorescent screen behave like photocathode. Electron image shift from fluorescent to phosphor screen. Lens & mirror system project image on phosphor screen. Finally, X-ray image is produced and appear on output screen. Video camera is used to record the image & to observe on TV monitor.
X-ray Machine
Block Diagram of X-ray Machine:
KV Meter
Exposure Switch High Tension Supply Timer Rectifier
mA Meter
KV Selector
mA Control
Mains
Voltage Compensator
Filament Supply and Temperature Control
X-ray Tube
Voltmeter
(+)charged anode is called peak kV. Higher kVp increases speed of electron that strike the target. Maximum & average energy of X-ray beam increases. X-ray beam pass through more dense tissue produce better radiographic image. Increasing penetrating ability increase X-ray production & reduce exposure time.
Cooling Process.
Computed Tomography(CT)
CT is a powerful nondestructive technique to produce 3D crosssectional image from flat X-ray image. Basic Principle:
The Greek word tomos means slice or section & graphe means drawing.
angles.
By combining the series of X-ray the detailed structure is reconstructed. Finally, reconstructing structure is displayed on Video monitor.
Limitation of X-ray
There are some limitations of using conventional X-ray.
Two-dimensional picturization. Overlapping. Less shades of grey. Less resolution.
Use of CT Scanner
The CT scanner used for following purposes
To produce 3D image of internal structure of the body. To observe the structures of brain and head. To observe the structures of chest and abdomen. To identify diseases. To evaluate multiple organ injury in case of trauma. To confirm the presence of lesions such as cysts & solid tumors. To detect the problem of spinal cord such as osteoporosis. To plan radiation treatments for tumors & biopsies of particular organ.
System Components
The CT system consists of the following 4 major sub-system.
Scanning System: It takes suitable reading for picture reconstruction. It includes X-ray source & detector.
Translation & rotation repeated until 180projection. Simplicity, flexible, detector match & wide range object.
Same translate & rotate geometry. Fan beam & multiple detector. Series of views during each translation. Rotation angle increased. Scan time 20 to 80 seconds.
Rotate- stationary system. Fan shaped x-ray beam & circular detector. Test specimen irradiated by wide fan beam. Number of view equals to number of detector. Combine artifact resistance of 2nd & speed of 3rd . Scan time 1-10 seconds.
Methods of CT Scanning
There are 2 methods of CT scanning
1.Slice-by-slice method or conventional CT
Dynamic incremental scanning. It generates by directing x-ray beam several different angles & levels of
abdomen. Contrast dye visible the organ on x-ray film. Computer process x-ray information and produces CT image. Provides higher ionizing radiation than chest radiographs & easy to read. Very expensive to produce & may cause lung cancer.
Methods of CT Scanning
2. Volume acquisition method or spiral CT
Involves simultaneous movement of patient table & x-ray tube.
Volume acquisition of data reconstruct individual tomographic image. Excellent multiplaner reformation are possible for thin image slice. Provide greater visualization of blood vessels & internal tissues.
automobile accidents.
Fan Beam
The beam which is used to reduce scanning time is called fan beam.
It produce by the higher output rotating anode x-ray sources. It measure the density across the wider portion of the slice. It cover the entire width of the slice.
Advantages of CT
It provide axial, coronal and sagittal view of the tissue. It shows automatically precise location of the lesion and extent. It provides greater geometric precision. It allows reconstruction of cross-sectional image of the entire maxilla or mandible or both. The structure of the soft tissues both normal & pathological are clearly displayed. Due to inherent high contrast resolution difference between tissue that differs less than 1%
can be made.
Due to high sensitivity of detector large information is obtained from small exposure
As the image stored in computer so it can be viewed & manipulated in absence of patient. Combining consecutive CT scan, a 3D image of the object can be accurately reconstructed.
Disadvantages of CT
Although CT is a relatively accurate test, it has some disadvantages.
CT scan is sophisticated, costly and difficult to maintain. Very thin contiguous or overlapping slice may result in a high dose of
radiation. There is an inherent risk associated with the contrast medium. Very high density materials like metal bullets & dental restorations produce some severe artifact on CT scan, which produce interpretation difficult. 1. Streak artifact. Appear around material that block x-ray. Undersampling, photon starvation, beam hardening or scatter Commonly occur in posterior fossa of brain. Remove by newer reconstruction technique.
Artifacts
2.Partial volume effect.
Appear as blurring over sharp edge. Caused when scanner unable to differentiate high & low density tissue. Overcome by scanning using thinner slice.
3.Ring artifact.
Mechanical artifact.
4.Motion artifact.
Caused by movement of object. Reduced by IFT(Incompressible flow tomography).
5.Noise artifact.
Caused by low signal to noise ratio. Also due to insufficient power to penetrate anatomy.
Basic Principle:
When certain material placed in MRI machine 2 things happen. Powerful magnetic field align the magnetization of atomic nuclei in the
body. Radio frequency field systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization. The nuclei within this tissue produce a rotating magnetic field. Tissue take resonant characteristics & become magnetized. The nuclei can absorbed and re-radiate RF radiation at specific frequency. This phenomena is called NMR. The RF signals produced by NMR can be displayed in the form of image.
NMR scanner can produce at any desired cross-section. Unlike CAT, NMRI imaging requires no moving parts, gantries or sophisticated crystal detector. Unlike CAT, NMRI use no severe ionizing radiation & has minimal hazards for operators & patient. The resolution of NMRI imaging is worse than the x-ray CAT scanner. NMRI takes much longer time to reconstruct image than CAT scanner. Compared to the CAT, NMRI signal is inherent to very low sensitivity. Unlike CAT, NMRI based on very weak, non-ionizing radio-frequency phenomenon.
combination of both. It has nuclear spin & magnetic moment with magnitude & direction. Magnetic moment align the tissue randomly with zero magnetization. Material under magnetic field Bo , nuclei experience an external magnetic torque. It align the individual parallel or anti-parallel magnetic moments in the direction of magnetic field. Slight excess nuclei aligned parallel & gives the tissue a net magnetic field Mo .
higher. The excited protons tends to returns or relax to its low-energy state. It performs spontaneous decay & re-emission of energy at a time t in the form of radio wave. This decay is exponential in nature & produces a free induction decay signal. It is the fundamental form of nuclear signal obtainable from NMR system.
same result can be obtained by applying a RF pulse at resonant frequency of protons in the tissue. The angle depends on the amplitude but primarily on the length of RF pulse. The net magnetic moment M precesses with the same characteristics frequency o .
rotating slower & faster. M in X-Y plane disappears when individual magnetic moment cancel out each other.
to sample. A single point on the specimen which is unmodulated is taken as reference signal. Sample volume is divided into nx,ny & nz volume elements along 3 axes. By moving the center of field gradients sensitive point move arbitrarily through sample. These NMR signal is used to reconstruct the image within this volume. This method utilize steady state free precession(SSFP) technique.
nuclear spin density. To obtain a projection of 3D spin density along straight line a strong magnetic field is applied in chosen direction. Nuclear spin in a plane perpendicular to this direction, contribute to resonance at same frequency. This signal intensity is the measure of the projected spin density. The NMR signal strength projection of spin density distribution for 3 different field is given below.
A Magnet: It provides strong uniform, steady magnetic field Bo . An RF transmitter: It delivers RF frequency magnetic field to the
sample.
A detection system: This system yields the output signal. An imaging system: Including computer, it reconstructs and displays
the images. Computer:
It provides the imaging sequence in the system. Gates & envelopes for NMR pulse, blanking for pre & RF power amplifier, voltage
waveform of gradient magnetic field all under software control. It also perform Fourier transformation, image reconstruction, data filtering, image display & storage function. The computer in this purposes must have sufficient memory & speed to handle large image array.
RF pulse & frequency of MRI signal. It may produce less amount of hazard for patient.
Applications of NMRI
1.Brain & spinal cord:
NMRI can produce very detailed structure of the brain & spinal cord. It can easily diagnosis brain tumors, stroke, dementia, multiple sclerosis, motor
cartilage, tendon, muscle & ligaments. Easily diagnosis bone & joint infection such as arthritis, osteomyelitis.
3.Cancer detection:
NMRI are often used for the diagnosis of cancer. It can check how much of the organ is affected by the cancer.
Ultrasonic Imaging
Ultrasound: It is a sonic energy at frequencies above the
audible range. Properties of ultrasound:
1.Frequency:
Ultrasonic's follow the general relationship of V=f. For diagnostic purposes ultrasound used frequencies of (1-15) MHz.
2.Propagation:
Velocity of sound propagation through medium varies with the density of
medium & temperature. It also varies with its elastic properties. The velocity of sound through bone is much higher than 3360 m/sec.
3. Characteristic Impedance:
The characteristics impedance of a material is the product of its density &
Properties of Ultrasound
4.Attenuation of ultrasonic energy:
When ultrasound travels certain amount of the wave is attenuated for each cm. Amount of attenuation is a function of both frequency of ultrasound &
characteristics of material. Occur in 2 ways absorption & redirection. Unit of attenuation constant is dB/cm.
6.Doppler Effect:
It is an well known characteristic of ultrasound.
Within these 3 method piezo-electric is generally used to generate & detect ultrasound waves at modern technology.
Within this 5 method crystal detector is mostly used for the detection of ultrasound.
Ultrasonic imaging: The technique of producing image of internal organ
Application:
In echoencephalogram to obtain record of brain. In echoopthalmoscope.
Application: To observe tumors, stone in kidney & gall bladder. To observe the fetus in mother womb.
Application: To examine the activity of heart & valves. To produce image of non-stationary part of body. In echocardiogram.