AP Phys B

Test Review

Modern Physics
5/9/2008
Overview
 Basics

 Photoelectric
Effect
 Bohr Model of the atom

• Energy Transitions
 Nuclear Physics
Basics
 Quantization:
the idea that light and
matter come in discreet, indivisible
packets
• Wave-particle duality in light and matter
• Matter behaves both as a wave and as a
particle.
Energy of a photon
 Blackbody radiation
• Ultraviolet catastrophe
• Planck came up with the idea that light is emitted by
certain discreet resonators that emit energy packets
called photons
• This energy is given by:

E = hν
Photoelectric Effect Schematic
 When light strikes E,
photoelectrons are emitted

 Electrons collected at C and

passing through the ammeter
are a current in the circuit

 C is maintained at a positive
potential by the power supply
Photoelectric Current/Voltage
Graph
 The current increases with
intensity, but reaches a
saturation level for large ΔV’s
 No current flows for voltages
less than or equal to –ΔVs, the
stopping potential
• The stopping potential is
independent of the radiation
intensity
Features Not Explained by
Classical Physics/Wave Theory
 No electrons are emitted if the incident light
frequency is below some cutoff frequency that is
characteristic of the material being illuminated
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
independent of the light intensity
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
increases with increasing light frequency
 Electrons are emitted from the surface almost
instantaneously, even at low intensities
Einstein’s Explanation
 A tiny packet of light energy, called a photon, would
be emitted when a quantized oscillator jumped from
one energy level to the next lower one
• Extended Planck’s idea of quantization to
electromagnetic radiation
 The photon’s energy would be E = hƒ
 Each photon can give all its energy to an electron in
the metal
 The maximum kinetic energy of the liberated
photoelectron is

KE = hƒ – Φ
Explanation of Classical
“Problems”
 The effect is not observed below a certain cutoff
frequency since the photon energy must be greater
than or equal to the work function
• Without this, electrons are not emitted, regardless
of the intensity of the light
 The maximum KE depends only on the frequency
and the work function, not on the intensity
 The maximum KE increases with increasing
frequency
 The effect is instantaneous since there is a one-to-
one interaction between the photon and the electron
Verification of Einstein’s Theory
 Experimental
observations of a
linear relationship
between KE and
frequency confirm
Einstein’s theory

 The x-intercept is the

cutoff frequency 
fc 
h
27.4 X-Rays
 Electromagnetic radiation with short
wavelengths
• Wavelengths less than for ultraviolet
• Wavelengths are typically about 0.1 nm
• X-rays have the ability to penetrate most
materials with relative ease
 Discovered and named by Roentgen in
1895
Production of X-rays
 X-rays are produced
when high-speed
electrons are suddenly
slowed down
• Can be caused by the
electron striking a metal
target
 A current in the
filament causes
electrons to be emitted
Production of X-rays
 An electron passes
near a target nucleus
 The electron is
deflected from its
path by its attraction
to the nucleus
 It will emit
electromagnetic
radiation when it is
accelerated
27.8 Photons and
Electromagnetic Waves
 Light has a dual nature. It exhibits both wave
and particle characteristics
• Applies to all electromagnetic radiation
 The photoelectric effect and Compton
scattering offer evidence for the particle nature
of light
• When light and matter interact, light behaves as if it
were composed of particles
 Interference and diffraction offer evidence of
the wave nature of light
28.9 Wave Properties of
Particles
 In 1924, Louis de Broglie postulated that because
photons have wave and particle characteristics,
perhaps all forms of matter have both properties
h
λ=
mv
 The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is

 The frequency of matter waves is

E
ƒ=
h
The Davisson-Germer
Experiment
 They scattered low-energy electrons from a
nickel target
 The wavelength of the electrons calculated
from the diffraction data agreed with the
expected de Broglie wavelength
 This confirmed the wave nature of electrons
 Other experimenters have confirmed the wave
nature of other particles
27.10 The Wave Function
 In 1926 Schrödinger proposed a wave equation that
describes the manner in which matter waves change
in space and time
 Schrödinger’s wave equation is a key element in
quantum mechanics


i  H
t
 Schrödinger’s wave equation is generally solved for
the wave function, Ψ
The Wave Function
 The wave function depends on the
particle’s position and the time

 The value of |Ψ|2 at some location at a

given time is proportional to the
probability of finding the particle at that
location at that time
27.11 The Uncertainty Principle
 When measurements are made, the
experimenter is always faced with
experimental uncertainties in the
measurements
• Classical mechanics offers no fundamental
barrier to ultimate refinements in
measurements
• Classical mechanics would allow for
measurements with arbitrarily small
uncertainties
 The Uncertainty Principle
 Quantum mechanics predicts that a barrier to
measurements with ultimately small
uncertainties does exist
 In 1927 Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty
principle
• If a measurement of position of a particle is made
with precision Δx and a simultaneous measurement
of linear momentum is made with precision Δp, then
the product of the two uncertainties can never be
smaller than h/4π
The Uncertainty Principle
 Mathematically, h
∆x∆p x ≥
4π
 It is physically impossible to measure
simultaneously the exact position and the
exact linear momentum of a particle

 Another form of the principle deals with

energy and time: ∆E∆t ≥ h
4π
Early Models of the Atom

 Rutherford’s model
• Planetary model
• Based on results of
thin foil experiments
• Positive charge is
concentrated in the
center of the atom,
called the nucleus
• Electrons orbit the
nucleus like planets
orbit the sun
Experimental tests
Expect:

• Mostly small
angle scattering
• No backward
scattering events

Results:

• Mostly small
scattering events
• Several
backward
scatterings!!!
Difficulties with the Rutherford
Model
 Atoms emit certain discrete characteristic
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
• The Rutherford model is unable to explain this
phenomena
 Rutherford’s electrons are undergoing a centripetal
acceleration and so should radiate electromagnetic
waves of the same frequency
• The radius should steadily decrease as this
radiation is given off
• The electron should eventually spiral into the
nucleus
28.2 Emission Spectra

 A gas at low pressure

has a voltage applied to it
 When the emitted light is
analyzed with a
spectrometer, a series of
discrete bright lines is
observed
• Each line has a different
wavelength and color
 Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
 The wavelengths of hydrogen’s spectral lines can
be found from

1  1 1
= RH  2 − 2 
λ 2 n 

• RH is the Rydberg constant

•R H = 1.0973732 x 107 m-1
• n is an integer, n = 1, 2, 3, …
• The spectral lines correspond to
different values of n
 A.k.a. Balmer series
 Absorption Spectra

 An element can also absorb light at specific

wavelengths
 An absorption spectrum can be obtained by
passing a continuous radiation spectrum through a
vapor of the gas
 The absorption spectrum consists of a series of
dark lines superimposed on the otherwise
continuous spectrum
• The dark lines of the absorption spectrum coincide with the
bright lines of the emission spectrum
 28.3 The Bohr Theory of
Hydrogen

 In 1913 Bohr provided an explanation of

atomic spectra that includes some features of
the currently accepted theory
 His model includes both classical and non-
classical ideas
 His model included an attempt to explain why
the atom was stable
 Bohr’s Assumptions for
Hydrogen
 The electron moves in circular orbits
around the proton under the influence of
the Coulomb force of attraction
 Only certain electron orbits are stable
• These are the orbits in which the atom
does not emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation
• Therefore, the energy of the atom
remains constant and classical
mechanics can be used to describe the
electron’s motion
 Radiation is emitted by the atom when the
electron “jumps” from a more energetic
initial state to a lower state
• The “jump” cannot be treated Ei  E f  hf
classically
Bohr’s Assumptions
 More on the electron’s “jump”:
• The frequency emitted in the “jump” is related
to the change in the atom’s energy
• It is generally not the same as the frequency
of the electron’s orbital motion

Ei  E f  hf  h 
me vr  n  , n  1, 2,3,...
 2 
 The size of the allowed electron orbits is determined
by a condition imposed on the electron’s orbital
angular momentum
 Results
 The total energy of the atom
2
1 e
E  KE  PE  me v 2  ke
• 2 r
e2 v2
F  me a or ke 2  me
r r
 Newton’s law

mv 2 e2
 This can be KE to rewrite
used  ke kinetic energy as
2 2r
k ee2
E=−
2r
Bohr Radius
 The radii of the Bohr orbits are quantized
n2 2
rn = n = 1, 2, 3,  h h
m ek e e 2 2

• This shows that the electron can only exist in

certain allowed orbits determined by the integer n
• When n = 1, the orbit has the smallest radius,
called the Bohr radius, ao
• ao = 0.0529 nm
Radii and Energy of Orbits

 A general expression for the radius of

any orbit in a hydrogen atom is
• rn = n2 ao
 The energy of any orbit is
• En = - 13.6 eV/ n2
 The lowest energy state is called the
ground state
• This corresponds to n = 1
• Energy is –13.6 eV
 The next energy level has an energy of –
3.40 eV
 The ionization energy is the energy
needed to completely remove the
electron from the atom
 Energy Level Diagram
 The value of RH from Bohr’s analysis is in
excellent agreement with the experimental
value
 A more generalized equation can be used to
find the wavelengths of any spectral lines

1  1 1
= RH  2 − 2 
λ  n f ni 

• For the Balmer series, nf = 2

• For the Lyman series, nf = 1
 Whenever a transition occurs between a
state, ni and another state, nf (where ni > nf),
a photon is emitted
Quantum Number Summary

 The values of n can increase from 1 in integer steps

 The values of ℓ can range from 0 to n-1 in integer steps
 The values of m ℓ can range from -ℓ to ℓ in integer steps
Atomic Transitions – Energy
Levels
 An atom may have
many possible energy
levels
 At ordinary
temperatures, most of
the atoms in a sample
are in the ground state
 Only photons with
energies corresponding
to differences between
energy levels can be
absorbed
Atomic Transitions – Stimulated
Absorption
 The blue dots represent
electrons
 When a photon with
energy ΔE is absorbed,
one electron jumps to a
higher energy level
• These higher levels
are called excited
states
• ΔE = hƒ = E2 – E1
Atomic Transitions –
Spontaneous Emission
 Once an atom is in
an excited state,
there is a constant
probability that it will
jump back to a lower
state by emitting a
photon
 This process is
called spontaneous
emission
Atomic Transitions – Stimulated
Emission
 An atom is in an excited
stated and a photon is
incident on it
 The incoming photon
increases the
probability that the
excited atom will return
to the ground state
 There are two emitted
photons, the incident
one and the emitted
one
29.1 Some Properties of Nuclei

 All nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons

• Exception is ordinary hydrogen with just a proton
 The atomic number, Z, equals the number of
protons in the nucleus
 The neutron number, N, is the number of neutrons
in the nucleus
 The mass number, A, is the number of nucleons in
the nucleus
• A=Z+N
• Nucleon is a generic term used to refer to either a proton or
a neutron
• The mass number is not the same as the mass
Charge and mass

Charge:
 The electron has a single negative charge, -e (e = 1.60217733 x 10-19
C)
 The proton has a single positive charge, +e

• Thus, charge of a nucleus is equal to Ze

 The neutron has no charge

• Makes it difficult to detect

Mass:
 It is convenient to use atomic mass units, u, to express masses

• 1 u = 1.660559 x 10-27 kg
 Mass can also be expressed in MeV/c2

• 1 u = 931.494 MeV/c2
The Size of the Nucleus
 First investigated by
Rutherford in scattering
experiments
 The KE of the particle
must be completely
converted to PE
1 2
mv  ke
q1q2
 ke
 2e   Ze 
d
4ke Ze 2
or
2 r d mv 2
Size of Nucleus
 Since the time of
Rutherford, many
other experiments
have concluded the
following
• Most nuclei are
approximately
spherical

1
r = ro A 3
 Density of Nuclei
 The volume of the nucleus (assumed to be
spherical) is directly proportional to the total
number of nucleons
 This suggests that all nuclei have nearly the
same density
 Nucleons combine to form a nucleus as
though they were tightly packed spheres
 Nuclear Stability
 There are very large repulsive electrostatic forces
between protons
• These forces should cause the nucleus to fly apart
 The nuclei are stable because of the presence of
another, short-range force, called the nuclear (or
strong) force
• This is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear
particles
• The nuclear attractive force is stronger than the Coulomb
repulsive force at the short ranges within the nucleus
 Nuclear Stability chart
 Light nuclei are most
stable if N = Z
 Heavy nuclei are most
stable when N > Z
• As the number of protons
increase, the Coulomb force
increases and so more
nucleons are needed to keep
the nucleus stable
 No nuclei are stable when
Z > 83
 Isotopes
 The nuclei of all atoms of a particular element must contain
the same number of protons
 They may contain varying numbers of neutrons
• Isotopes of an element have the same Z but differing N
and A values
11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C
 29.2 Binding Energy
 The total energy of
the bound system
(the nucleus) is less
than the combined
energy of the
separated nucleons
• This difference in
energy is called the
binding energy of the
nucleus
Binding Energy per Nucleon
• It can be thought of as
the amount of energy
Binding Energy Notes
 Except for light nuclei, the binding energy is
about 8 MeV per nucleon
 The curve peaks in the vicinity of A = 60
• Nuclei with mass numbers greater than or less than 60
are not as strongly bound as those near the middle of
the periodic table
 The curve is slowly varying at A > 40
• This suggests that the nuclear force saturates
• A particular nucleon can interact with only a limited
number of other nucleons
29.3 Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous
emission of radiation
 Experiments suggested that radioactivity
was the result of the decay, or
disintegration, of unstable nuclei
 Three types of radiation can be emitted

• Alpha particles
• The particles are He nuclei
4

• Beta particles
• The particles are either electrons or positrons
 Distinguishing Types of
Radiation

 The gamma particles

carry no charge
 The alpha particles are
deflected upward
 The beta particles are
deflected downward
• A positron would be
deflected upward
Penetrating Ability of Particles
 Alpha particles
• Barely penetrate a piece of paper
 Beta particles
• Can penetrate a few mm of aluminum
 Gamma rays
• Can penetrate several cm of lead
The Decay Constant
 The number of particles that decay in a given
time is proportional to the total number of
particles in a radioactive sample
N
R  N
t N   N  t 

• λ is called the decay constant and determines the rate

at which the material will decay
 The decay rate or activity, R, of a sample is
defined as the number of decays per second
Decay Curve
 The decay curve
follows the equation

N  N 0 e  t

 The half-life is also a

useful parameter

ln 2 0.693
T1 2 = =
λ λ
Units
 The unit of activity, R, is the Curie, Ci
• 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10
decays/second
 The SI unit of activity is the Becquerel,
Bq
• 1 Bq = 1 decay / second
• Therefore, 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10
Bq
 The most commonly used units of
activity are the mCi and the µCi
Alpha Decay
 When a nucleus emits an alpha particle it
loses two protons and two neutrons
• N decreases by 2
• Z decreases by 2 A
Z X→ A −4
Y + He
Z −2
4
2
• A decreases by 4
Beta Decay
 During beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the
same number of nucleons as the parent, but the
atomic number is one less
 In addition, an electron (positron) was observed
 The emission of the electron is from the nucleus
• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons
• The process occurs when a neutron is
transformed into a proton and an electron
• Energy must be conserved
 Beta Decay – Electron Energy
 The energy released in the decay process
should almost all go to kinetic energy of the
electron
 Experiments showed that few electrons had
this amount of kinetic energy
 To account for this “missing” energy, in
1930 Pauli proposed the existence of
another particle
 Enrico Fermi later named this particle the
neutrino
 Properties of the neutrino
• Zero electrical charge
• Mass much smaller than the electron,
probably not zero
• Spin of ½
• Very weak interaction with matter
Gamma Decay
 Gamma rays are given off when an excited nucleus “falls” to a lower
energy state
• Similar to the process of electron “jumps” to lower energy states and
giving off photons
 The excited nuclear states result from “jumps” made by a proton or neutron
 The excited nuclear states may be the result of violent collision or more
likely of an alpha or beta emission
 Example of a decay sequence
• The first decay is a beta emission
• The second step is a gamma emission
−
12
5 B→ C * + e + ν
12
6
12
6 C*→126 C + γ
• The C* indicates the Carbon nucleus is in an excited state
• Gamma emission doesn’t change either A or Z