What is it? Where is it? What is it doing? How do we detect it? What do we do about it?

Energy emitted in the form of waves or particles. 3 common types and one less common
The (alpha) particle The (beta) particle (gamma) and X-rays And under certain circumstances The neutron

Actually the nucleus of a helium atom. Carries a charge of 2+

An electron/positron emitted by the nucleus of an atom. Carries a single positive or negative charge.

The alpha particle is over 7000 times heavier than the beta particle. Being less massive and less charged than the , the interacts less with matter and has a much greater range.

To penetrate the nominal protective layer of the skin

An particle requires an energy of 7.5 MeV A particle requires an energy of 70 keV (0.07 MeV)

Gamma & X radiation are a bit different in nature than the preceding two types they are a form of electromagnetic radiation with characteristics of both particles and waves.

Unlike other forms of radiation, most x-rays in our environment are produced artificially by an electrical device, the x-ray tube.

Usually only encountered in very specific environments at higher than background rate, such as inside the containment vessel of a nuclear reactor, and thus not typically a risk to the general public. Only form of radiation capable of inducing radioactivity in nonradioactive materials (Exception is particle accelerators, where higher energies can produce nuclear activation).

For our purposes, a neutron can be thought of as a proton and an electron merged, since beta decay is basically proton-neutron interconversion to stabilize the nucleus.

Radiation in some form is present everywhere, all of the time.

Total background = 50% Total medical = 48%

The total dose to the average individual has increased 6X since 1980, with of that due to CT scans

Radon is a radioactive gas that is chemically inert. Occurs as a result of the decay of naturally occurring radioactive minerals (Ra, U) in the soil. Deposits radioactive decay products in the lungs.

C.T. Scanner 24% yearly exposure of average American

Brachytherapy Isotopes: Cesium-137 Cobalt-60 Iridium-192 Iodine-125 Palladium-103 Ruthenium-106

Linacs megavoltage x-rays, electron beam. Cobalt Unit gamma knife. Hadron Therapy proton, neutron, nuclei.

Nuclear Medicine Isotopes: Fluorine-18 + Gallium-67 Krypton-81m Rubidium-82 + Technecium-99m Iridium-111 Iodine-123 Xenon-133 Thallium-201 Yttrium-90 Iodine-131 -

Common emitters:
Americium-241 Polonium-210

Smoke detectors Static eliminators Luminous signs Piezoelectric generators

Common emitters:
Common emitters:
Cobalt-60 Iridium-192

Tritium (Hydrogen-3) Nickel-63

Food sterilization Industrial radiography

Only radiation of sufficient energy to knock electrons off of atoms to produce ions so-called Ionizing Radiation is regulated by the Arkansas Department of Health. This ionization, when it occurs inside a living organism, can seriously disrupt the cellular machinery.

and radiation, being particulate and charged, have definite ranges in matter, based upon the energy of the radiation and the density of the matter. radiation and x-rays, however, being uncharged electromagnetic radiation, have only a probability of interaction with matter they pass through. We use the term attenuation, or weakening, instead of range to describe this condition. A given or x-ray may pass many feet before being absorbed.

Since particles lack the energy to penetrate the outer layer of skin, they are the least dangerous external radiation. If an -emitting radionuclide is inhaled or ingested, however, it is the most dangerous internal source of radiation. All of the particles energy gets dumped in a very short range of tissue, producing a very dense region of ionization.

Alexander Litvinenko, a former Russian agent who defected to the UK, fell ill on November 1, 2006, after having lunch with two former KGB agents. He died November 23 with the symptoms of acute radiation poisoning. After his death it was determined that he had ingested Polonium-210, probably in his tea at lunch.

Polonium-210 is an intense, almost pure alphaemitter with a half-life of 138 days. The almost complete lack of gamma emission (1:100,000) makes it hard to detect, presumably a reason for its use as a poison. It is such a powerful source that one gram of Po-210 will self-heat to a temperature of around 500 C (932 F). The main target organs are the spleen and liver.

The symptoms seen in Litvinenko appeared consistent with an administered activity of approximately 2 GBq (50 mCi) which corresponds to about 10 micrograms of 210Po. That is 200 times the median lethal dose of around 238 Ci or 50 nanograms in the case of ingestion. The particle energy is 5.307 Mev, which gives a range of only about 0.05 mm in water.

Since ionizing radiation is what we are looking for, we use the ionization of matter as the sensing mechanism.

Speak the mantra of Radiation Protection:

Time (Limit exposure time to the minimum) Distance (Remember doubling the distance quarters the dose in a vacuum, not taking into account the added shielding thickness) Shielding (The denser the better for photonic, but not so much for or neutrons)

The Annual Occupational Limit for External Radiation Exposure is the more limiting of:
A TEDE of 5 rem (0.05 Sv). The sum of the deep-dose equivalent to any individual organ or tissue other than the lens of the eye being equal to 50 rem (0.5 Sv). A lens dose equivalent of 15 rem (0.15 Sv). A shallow dose equivalent of 50 rem (0.5 Sv) to the skin or any extremity.

ADH Exposure Limits for Emergency Workers

100 mR/shift 200 mR/day. Turnback 50 mR total or 20 mR/hour. 5 rem computed TEDE (as on previous slide).

Transport Index (TI) Dose rate at 1 meter from a package. Different limits apply for different labels.

What is it? - Energy emitted in the form of waves or particles. Where is it? Everywhere within us and around us. What is it doing? Knocking electrons off atoms and thereby disrupting biological function.

How do we detect it? By detecting its ionization of matter. What do we do about it? Knowledge is power.

Topic 1 The RBE of Tritium

Topic 2 DNA Damage by Particles of Subionization Energies.

Tritium is classified as a low radiotoxicity isotope by the IAEA, despite the following:

Tritium possesses the properties of rapid transport & cycling in the biosphere, global distribution, rapid pathways to humans, large fractions internalized, and large organic binding and exchange. Tritium does not distribute randomly within the body; specifically, it is enriched (by a factor of 3 to 1) in the water of hydration surrounding DNA. At this range the emitted particle is very damaging.

Recent research has indicated that electrons possessing energy far below that required for ionization can disrupt DNA structure. Absorbance of these electrons by DNA occurs at energies of 2.2 & 0.8 eV!!! Doing a De Broglie wavelength calculation solves the mystery these electrons are resonating at the same wavelength as the UV radiation known to damage DNA.