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5.1 Introduction
A project is a collection of tasks that must be completed in minimum time or at minimal cost. Objectives of Project Scheduling
Completing the project as early as possible by determining the earliest start and finish of each activity. Calculating the likelihood a project will be completed within a certain time period. Finding the minimum cost schedule needed to complete the project by a certain date.
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5.1 Introduction
A project is a collection of tasks that must be completed in minimum time or at minimal cost. Objectives of Project Scheduling
Investigating the results of possible delays in activitys completion time. Progress control. Smoothing out resource allocation over the duration of the project.
Task Designate
Tasks are called activities.
Estimated completion time (and sometimes costs) are associated with each activity. Activity completion time is related to the amount of resources committed to it. The degree of activity details depends on the application and the level of specificity of data.
Based on this information we can develop managerial tools for project control.
KLONE needs to develop a precedence relations chart. The chart gives a concise set of tasks and their immediate predecessors.
Description
Prototype model design Purchase of materials Manufacture of prototype model Revision of design
E
Training activities F G H
Advertising activities
I
J
KLONE COMPUTERS, INC From the activity description chart, we can determine immediate predecessors for each activity.
Activity A is an immediate predecessor of activity B, because it must be competed just prior to the commencement of B.
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PERT/CPM is used for scheduling activities such that the projects completion time is minimized.
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Evaluate the ES of all the nodes for which EF of all the immediate predecessor has been determined.
ES = Max EF of all its immediate predecessors. EF = ES + Activity duration.
0,90
A A 90
90,115 F F 25
129,149 D D 20
90,120 II 30
Evaluate the LF of all the nodes for which LS of all the immediate successors has been determined.
LF = Min LS of all its immediate successors. LS = LF - Activity duration.
Repeat this process backward until all nodes have been evaluated.
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90,105 95,110
B B 15
105,110 110,115
149,170 173,194 E E 21
5,95 A A 90
29,119
0,90 0,90
90,120 119,149 I I 30
129,149 149,177 115,129 129,149 115,129 129,149 153,173 166,194 129,149 146,166 H G 129,149 D D H G 129,149 20 28 14 129,149 129,149 129,149 149,194 149,194
194
J 45
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Slack Times
Activity start time and completion time may be delayed by planned reasons as well as by unforeseen reasons. Some of these delays may affect the overall completion date. To learn about the effects of these delays, we calculate the slack time, and form the critical path.
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Slack Times
Slack time is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the project completion date, assuming no other delays are taking place in the project.
Slack Time = LS - ES = LF - EF
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Activity A B C D E F G H I
J
LS - ES 0 -0 95 - 90 110 - 105 119 - 119 173 - 149 90 - 90 115 - 115 166 - 149 119 - 90 149 - 149
Slack 0 5 5 0 24 0 0 17 29 0
19
20
105,110 110,115
115,129 115,129 G G 14
149,170 173,194
129,149 129,149 D D 20
E E 21 149,177 166,194 H H 28
149,194 149,194
J J 45
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Possible Delays
We observe two different types of delays:
Single delays.
Multiple delays.
Under certain conditions the overall project completion time will be delayed. The conditions that specify each case are presented next. 22
Single delays
A delay of a certain amount in a critical activity, causes the entire project to be delayed by the same amount.
A delay of a certain amount in a non-critical activity will delay the project by the amount the delay exceeds the slack time. When the delay is less than the slack, the entire project is not delayed.
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B 15
C 5
DELAYED START=149+15=164
LS=173
E 21
A 90
F 25
G 14
D 20
H 28
ES=90
I 30
J 45
24
LS =119
90
90 A B C D 15
E F
G
Gantt chart demonstration of the (no) effects on the project completion time when delaying activity I and E by 15 days.
194
25
Activity E
14
28
30 45
H
I J
Activity I
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Multiple delays of non critical activities: Case 2: Activities are on the same path, separated by critical activities.
ES=90 DELAYED START =94 LS =95 ES=149
B 15
C 5
E 21
A 90
F 25
G 14
D 20
H 28
Multiple delays of non critical activities: Case 2: Activities are on the same path, no critical activities separating them.
ES= 90
B 15
E 21
A 90
F 25
G 14
D 20
H 28
Objective function
Complete the project in minimum time.
Constraints
For each arc L M a constraint states that the start time of M must not occur before the finish time of its immediate predecessor, L.
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Minimize X(FIN)
While this objective function is intuitive other objective functions provide more information, and are presented later.
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X(FIN) XH + 28 X(FIN) XJ + 45 XD XG + 14 XE XD + 20 XH XD + 20 XJ XD + 20
XF XA+ 90
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This objective function and the additional constraint ensure that the optimal X values are the latest start times of all the activities.
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m
90 15 5 20 21 25 14 28 30 45
s2
ES
0 90 105 129 149 90 115 149 90 149
EF
90 105 110 149 170 115 129 177 120 194
LS
0 95 110 129 173 90 115 166 119 149
LF
90 110 115 149 194 115 129 194 149 194
Slack
0 5 5 0 24 0 0 17 29 0
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In an earliest time Gantt chart each bar begins and ends at the earliest start/finish the activity can take place.
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Heres how we build an Earliest Time Gantt Chart for KLONEPALM 2000
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90
90 A B C D E F G H I J
Immediate Estimated Activity Predecessor Completion CompletionTime Time A None 90 B A 15 C B 5 D G 20 E D 21 F A 25 G C,F 14 H D 28 I A 30 J D,I 45
15
25
14
28 30 45
35
Appropriate percentage of a bar is shaded to document the completed work. The manager can easily see if the project is progressing on schedule (with respect to the earliest possible completion times).
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25
14
Do not conclude that the project is behind schedule. Activity I has a slack and therefore can be delayed!!!
28 30 45
135
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Disadvantages
Gives only one possible schedule (earliest). Does not show whether the project is behind schedule. Does not demonstrate the effects of delays in any one activity on the start of another activity, thus on the project completion time.
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Step 1: Consider the schedule that begins each activity at its ES. Step 2: Determine which activity has slack at periods of peak spending. Step 3: Attempt to reschedule the non-critical activities performed during these peak periods to periods of less spending, but within the time period between their ES and LF.
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Resource Leveling
KLONE COMPUTERS, Inc. - continued Management wishes to schedule the project such that
Completion time is 194 days. Daily expenditures are kept as constant as possible.
To perform this analysis cost estimates for each activity will be needed.
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Resource Leveling
KLONE COMPUTERS, Inc. cost estimates
Activity
A B C D E F G H I J
Description
Prototype model design Purchase of materials Manufacture of prototype Revision of design Initial production run Staff training Staff input on prototype Sales traini ng
Pre-production advertisement Post-production advertisement
Total cost =
55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
20
40
60
80
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Cost Leveling
I IIIIII ES = 90 45 LS = 110 39 I 32 27 22 I I F I D G
55 H H 44
E H
E E
30
B F F
J J J J 15
20
40
60
80
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55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
25
Cost Leveling
55 H H 44
E
32 27 22 I I F I D G
H
30
I
C
H
E E
B F F
J J J J 15
20
40
60
80
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PERT is a technique that treats activity completion times as random variables. Completion time estimates are obtained by the Three Time Estimate approach
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To calculate the mean and standard deviation of the project completion time we make some simplifying assumptions.
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Assumption 2
The time to complete one activity is independent of the time to complete any other activity.
Assumption 3
There are enough activities on the critical path so that the distribution of the overall project completion time can be approximated by the normal distribution.
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76 12 4 15 18 16 10 24 22 38
86 15 5 18 21 26 13 18 27 43
120 18 6 33 24 30 22 32 50 60
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53
m
90 15 5 20 21 25 14 28 30 45
s
7.33 1.00 0.33 3.00 1.00 2.33 2.00 1.33 4.67 3.67
s2
53.78 1.00 0.11 9.00 1.00 5.44 4.00 1.78 21.78 13.44
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KLONE COMPUTERS Finding mean and variance for the critical path
The mean times are the same as in the CPM problem, previously solved for KLONE. Thus, the critical path is A - F- G - D J.
Expected completion time = mA +mF +mG +mD +mJ=194.
s2 = 9.255
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194
The interval is = 194 1.96(9.255) @ [175, 213] days. The probability that the completion time lies in the interval [175,213] is 0.95.
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180 -1.51
194 0
X Z
to be exceeded.
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194 0
0.01
X0 X 2.33 Z
P(XX0) = 0.01, or P(Z X0 m)/s] = P(ZZ0) = .01 P(Z 2.33) = 0.01; X0=m+Z0s =194 + 2.33(9.255) = 215.56 days.
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NORMDIST(194, 194, 9.255, TRUE) NORMINV(.025, 194, 9.255) NORMINV(.975, 194, 9.255) NORMDIST(180, 194, 9.255, TRUE)
1 - NORMDIST(210, 194, 9.255, TRUE)
m
90 15 5 20 21 25 14 28 30 45
s
7.333333 1 0.333333 3 1 2.333333 2 1.333333 4.666667 3.666667
s2
53.77778 1 0.111111 9 1 5.444444 4 1.777778 21.77778 13.44444
ES
0 90 105 129 149 90 115 149 90 149
EF
90 105 110 149 170 115 129 177 120 194
LS
0 95 110 129 173 90 115 166 119 149
LF
90 110 115 149 194 115 129 194 149 194
Slack
0 5 5 0 24 0 0 17 29 0
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standard deviation. However, probabilities of interest (for x))cannot s2 Acitivty Node Critical the m s ES example, EF P(X LS LF Slack Design A * by each 90 7.333333 53.77778 0 90 0 check 90 0 be determined path alone. To find these probabilities, Materials B * 15 1 1 90 105 90 105 0 whether the paths are independent. Manufacture C * 5 0.333333 0.111111 105 110 105 110 0 IfD the paths are (no Design Revision * 20 independent 3 9 common 124 activities 144 among 124 the paths), 144 0 Production Run E the probabilities 21 1 144 165 168 189 24 multiply of 1 all the paths: Staff Training F 14 0.666667 0.444444 90 104 96 110 6 [Pr(Completion time x) = Pr(Path 1 x)P(Path 2 x)Path k x)] Staff Input G * 14 2 4 110 124 110 124 0 IfH the paths are the calculations might Sales Training 28 dependent, 1.333333 1.777778 144 172 become 161 very189 17 Preprod. Advertise I 30 case 4.666667 21.77778 90 120 114 144 24 cumbersome, in which running a computer simulation seems to be Post. Advertise J * 45 3.666667 13.44444 144 189 144 189 0 more practical. 63
Which option should be Cost $200,000; pursued? New time estimates are a = 19, m= 21, and b = 23 days.
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Conclusion: Management should not spend money on additional training of technical personnel.
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Time 20 and save on completion time on 18 and save more completion time 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Cost ($100)
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M=
E R
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Crashing activities
Meeting a Deadline at Minimum Cost
If the deadline to complete a project cannot be met using normal times, additional resources must be spent on crashing activities. The objective is to meet the deadline at minimal additional cost.
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Without spending any extra money, the restaurant will open in 29 weeks at a normal cost of $200,000.
When all the activities are crashed to the maximum, the restaurant will open in 17 weeks at crash cost of $300,000.
B
A
H
D L
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heuristically.
Three observations lead to the heuristic. The project completion time is reduced only when critical activity times are reduced. The maximum time reduction for each activity is limited. The amount of time a critical activity can be reduced before another path becomes critical is limited.
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Objective Function
Minimize the total additional funds spent on crashing activities.
Constraints
No activity can be reduced more than its Max. time reduction. Start time of an activity takes place not before the finish time of all its immediate predecessors. The project must be completed by the deadline date D.
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Linear Programming
Min 5.5YA+10YB+2.67YC+4YD+2.8YE+6YF+6.67YG+10YH+ 5.33YI+12YJ+4YK+5.33YL+1.5YN+4YO+5.33YP
ST
X ( FIN ) 19
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Linear Programming
Min 5.5YA+10YB+2.67YC+4YD+2.8YE+6YF+6.67YG+10YH+ 5.33YI+12YJ+4YK+5.33YL+1.5YN+4YO+5.33YP
XBXA+(5 YA)
-YA
O K J M N
XA
A A
XA+5-YA XA+5
B A G
B B BBB X X X X B BB B BX
Activity can start only after all the Predecessors are completed.
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Linear Programming
Min 5.5YA+10YB+2.67YC+4YD+2.8YE+6YF+6.67YG+10YH+ 5.33YI+12YJ+4YK+5.33YL+1.5YN+4YO+5.33YP
XBXA+(5 YA) XCXA+(5 YA) XDXA+(5 YA) XeXA+(5 YA) XFXA+(5 YA) XBXB+(1 YB) XFXC+(3 YC) XGXF+(1 YF) ..
O K J M N
B A G
Activity can start only after all the predecessors are completed.
200 300
NODE
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
Completion Time
3 1 1.5 2 4 0.5 4 2 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 4
Start Time
0 3 3 3 12.5 4.5 5 9 9 11.5 13 13.5 15 16.5 16.5 13.5
Amount Crashed
2 0 1.5 0 0 0.5 0 0 1.5 0 0 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 0
Cost of Crashing
11 0 4 0 0 3 7.87637E-11 0 8 0 0 8 8 0.75 6 0
Total Cost
36 10 22 8 8 15 20 12 21 10 8 22 18 6.75 14 18
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200 300
NODE
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
Completion Time
5 1 1.5 2 4 1 4 2 2.5 2 2 1.5 2.8125 3 3 4
Start Time
0 5 5 5 16.3125 6.5 7.5 12 11.5 14 14 16 17.5 20.3125 20.3125 19.3125
Cost of Crashing
0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 8 1 0 4 0
Total Cost
25 10 22 8 8 12 20 12 21 10 8 22 11 6 12 18
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7.11 PERT/COST
PERT/Cost helps management gauge progress against scheduled time and cost estimates.
PERT/Cost is based on analyzing a segmented project. Each segment is a collection of work packages. PROJECT
Work Package 1
Activity 1 Activity 2
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activities.
Reduce resource allocation to non-critical activities.
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MAYORAL CAMPAIGN
Status Report
Work Package
A B C D E F G H I
Expenditures ($)
2,600 5,000 3,000 5,000 700 5,600 700 2,000 0
Status
Finish Finish Finish Finish Finish 40% complete Finish 25% complete 0% complete
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Hire campaign staff Prepare position paper Recruit volunteers Raise funds File candidacy papers Prepare campaign material Locate/staff headquarter Run personal campaign Run media campaign
MAYORAL CAMPAIGN
Completion Time Analysis
The remaining network at the end of week 20.
H 15 (1-p)(original expected completion time)=(1-0.25)(20)=15 20+15=35 Finish
F 7.8
I 9 20+7.8=27.8
27.8+9=36.8 .8
The remaining activities are expected to take 0.8 weeks longer than the deadline of 36 weeks.
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MAYORAL CAMPAIGN
Project Cost Control
Budgeted Values Work Total Total Percent Package Time Cost Completed
A B C D E F G H I Total 4 6 4 6 2 13 1 20 9 2000 3,000 4,500 2,500 500 13,000 1,500 6,000 7,000 40,000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 40% 100% 25% 0%
3,900
MAYORAL CAMPAIGN
Results Summary
The project is currently .8 weeks behind schedule There is a cost over-run of $3900. The remaining completion time for uncompleted work packages is:
Work package F: 7.8 weeks, Work package H: 15 weeks, Work package I: 9 weeks.
Copyright 2002John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that named in Section 117 of the United States Copyright Act without the express written consent of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adopters of the textbook are granted permission to make back-up copies for their own use only, to make copies for distribution to students of the course the textbook is used in, and to modify this material to best suit their instructional needs. Under no circumstances can copies be made for resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages, caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.
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