Chapter 3:

Operational Amplifiers and Signal

Conditioning
Adapted from:
Kilian, C. T. (2001), Modern Control Technology: Components and Systems
Delmar
Objectives
Recognize the characteristics of an operational
amplifier and describe how they can be used as
the basis for different types of useful amplifiers.
Design the following op-amp circuits to meet
specific requirements: voltage follower, inverting
amp, non-inverting amp, summing amp,
differential amp, and comparator.
Understand the operation of the following types of
circuits: integrators, differentiators, active filters,
current-loop signal transmission, analog switches
and multiplexes, and sample and hold.
Understand the concepts of earth ground and
ground loops, magnetic and electrostatic shielding,
and the importance of single-point grounds.
Operational Amplifiers
High-gain linear amplifier
Very high open-loop gain (A = 100,000+)
Very high input resistance (Rin > 1M)
Low output impedance (Rout = 50 to 75 ohms).
The output of the op-amp will be driven in an
attempt to balance the inputs.
Supply Voltages
Most op-amps
can operate
with a dual-
supply.
Not all can
operate with a
single supply.
Output Compliance
The voltage applied to the op-amp is
commonly referred to as the 'Rail' voltages.
The output CANNOT exceed the rails, and
often cannot fully reach the rails.
How closely an op-amp can come to the rail is
output compliance.
When the output reaches the maximum, it is
said to be at the rail.
General Operation
The output of the op-amp will drive in an
attempt to balance the inputs That is, to
drive the inverting (-) input to equal the non-
inverting (+) input.




As a thumb rule, the output will go negative
if the (-) input is higher, and positive if the
(+) input is higher.
Slew Rate
Slew Rate is a measure of the change in
output over time.
Measured in V/uS.
The higher the slew rate, the better the
frequency range.
Open Loop Gain
A measure of the amplification with no
feedback.

Va = -1V
Vb = 1V
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Determine Vout
Va = 1V
Vb = 0V
Vsupply = +5V
Determine Vout
Va = Gnd
Vb = +/-2.5 Vp, 1KHz
Vsupply = +10V
Draw the input and output waveforms in
relation to one another.
Inverting and Non-Inverting

Voltage Follower
(Unity Gain)
Used to repeat a signal without loading
down the sensor.
Loading effects
Preventing Loading
Inverting Amplifier
Ri
R -
A
f
V
=
Vout = Vin(Av)
Va = 0.05V
R1 = 5K
R2 = 25K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Calculate Vout
Va = 20mVp-p, 1Khz
R1 = 1K
R2 = 100K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Draw the input and output waveforms in relation to
one another.
Va = 5Vp-p, 1 KHz
R1 = 100K
R2 = 50K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Draw the input and output waveforms in relation to
each other.
Non-Inverting Amplifier

1
Ri
R
A
f
V
+ =
Vout = Vin(Av)
Va = 2V
R1 = 10K
R2 = 10K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Calculate Vout
Va = 0.5Vpp
R1 = 10K
R2 = 90K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Draw the input and output waveforms in relation to
each other, label peak voltages and indicate
ground.
Va = 0.5Vpp
R1 = 1K
R2 = 100K
Vsupply = +/- 10V
Draw the input and output waveforms in relation to
each other, label peak voltages and indicate
ground.
Summing Amplifier
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= ... Vc
R
R
Vb
R
R
Va
R
R
V
in
f
in
f
in
f
OUT
Va = 1V, Vb = 0.5V, Vc = -4V
Ra = 5K. Vb = 2K, Rc = 20K
Rf = 10K
Calculate Vout
Va = 1Vpp, Vb = 1Vdc
R1 = 2K, R2 = 5K
R3 = 10K
Draw the Va input and output waveforms in
relation to each other, label peak voltages
and indicate ground.
Comparator

Differential Amplifier
Ra = Rb; Rf = Rg
) V V ( V
a b OUT
=
a
f
R
R
Va = 1V, Vb = 1.02V
Ra = Rb = 1K
Rf = Rg = 100K
Calculate Vout
Common Mode Rejection Ration
Ratio of the amplified signal to the amplified noise.
Av
difference
is found mathematically : Rf/Ra
Av
common
is found by injecting the same signal into
both inputs and measuring the output.
A
vcommon
= Vout/Vin

Common
Difference
Av
Av
CMRR =
Common
Difference
Av
Av
log 20 CMRR =
Ra = Rb = 1K
Rf = Rg = 50K
1Vpp is injected into Va and Vb, Vout is
measured at 0.05V.
Calculate CMRR in dB
Instrumentation Amplifier
Amplifier with a very good CMRR.
Integrator Circuit
The output voltage is proportional to amount
of time a signal is present, or, the area
under a signal curve.
Integrated Curves

Differentiator Circuit
Output is proportional to the rate of change
of the input.
Differentiated Curves

Decibels
Method of describing gain on a logarithmic
scale.






dB Gain in a system is additive.
Ap log 10 Ap
db
=
Av log 20 Av
db
=
20
Av
db
10 Av =
Filter Curves

A 1
st
order filter has a voltage roll-off of:
6dB per octave
20dB per decade

A 2
nd
order filter has a roll-off of:
12dB per octave
40dB per decade

Voltage Thumb-rules:
6dB = voltage x 2
-6dB = voltage / 2
20dB = voltage x 10
-20dB = voltage / 10
Power Thumb-rules
3dB = power x 2
-3dB = power / 2
10dB = power x 10
-10dB = Power / 10

Low Pass Active Filter

High-Pass Active Filter

Vin = 5V
Rf = Ri = 10K
R = 1K
C = .47 uF
Calculate Fc.
Calculate Vout at Fc
Draw a Bode plot. Indicate the -3dB point.
What would the output be at 2Fc in dB and Volts?
What would the output be at 10Fc in dB and Volts?
What would the value of Xc be at Fc?
Trip point thresholds
Window Comparator

Current Loop
Transmission of a voltage over a long wire
run will cause attenuation due to wire
resistance.
By using current to carry the data, there will
no information loss (Kirchoffs Current Law).

Transmitter
Voltage-to-Current converter. Vout will
change to maintain current in the loop.

R
Vin
I
R
=
Vin = 0 to 10V
R = 250 ohms
Calculate I
out
for over the range of input.
Receiver
Current-to-Voltage Converter. The current
through R
REC
develops a voltage which is
sensed by the diff-amp without referencing
ground.
REC V
REC REC
V A Vout
IR V
=
=
- The cable has a resistance 1.588 ohms/1000 feet.
- Distance between the Driver and Receiver is 5000 feet.
- Rrec is 50 ohms.
- R5 and R6 are 5K.
- R7 and R8 are 50K
- The range of Vin is 0 to 10V
Size Rref to provide a driver current of 0-20mA
Calculate Vout for the full range of Vin.
If the driver has a maximum output of 15V, what would the
longest distance that could be transmitted?
Analog Switch
Blocks or passes an analog voltage acts
as a switch without the mechanical
problems Uses digital signals to control.
Analog Multiplexer
Multiple switches may be used to multiplex
analog voltages to a single ADC.
Sample-and-Hold
Capacitor charges to the current voltage
level.
Charge time must be taken into account.
T = 5RC.
Useful to hold rapidly changing signals for
analysis.
Earth grounds
Most circuits
have a ground
or common or
reference
voltage.
Many circuits
are also
connected to
earth ground to
prevent a
charge from
building up.
Earth ground should not be used for a return
because the earth is a poor conductor.
Ground-Loop
Source and Load
should not be
separately
grounded
because a
difference on
potential at each
ground-point will
create a ground-
loop of current
flow.
Best solution for
connecting to
earth-ground.
Isolation Circuits
Allow for 2 circuits to have different source
voltages and grounds.
Ground Isolation
Signal Isolation
Spike protection

Transformer Coupled
Good for modulated signals.
Slow-changing DC signals must be
modulated to magnetically couple the
transformers.

Digital Optocoupler
Provides isolation of TTL level voltages.
Also called opto-isolators.
Interfacing of high voltage, noisy systems to
a controller.
Signal travels in only one direction.
Optical Linear Signal Isolation
An LED and matched phototransistors are
used to provide optical isolation.
The feedback phototransistor provides
feedback due to non-linear response of the
LED.
Shielding
Changing magnetic fields, such as from AC
lines, machinery, or data lines can induce
voltage into other lines.
Shielding cannot block the magnet field
noise, but can draw it away from the signal
wire
Magnetic/electric fields can induce a voltage
into the shield, which will produce its own
electric field.
Grounding the shield will prevent a voltage
buildup.
Single-point grounds should be used to
prevent ground-loop problems.



Best choice is to use a Single-Point Ground
at the controller.
When a single point ground cannot be used,
an isolation circuit with individually grounds
should be used.