Light Metals And

Their Alloys

Prepared By: 07301,07302,07303,

07304,07305,07307,07309,07117
 LIGHT METALS AND THEIR
ALLOYS
SCOPE
vLight alloys have become of great importance in engineering
for construction of transportation equipment. Many of these
light weight alloys have sufficiently high strength to warrant
their use for structural purposes , and as a result of their use ,
the total weight of transportation equipment has been
considerably decreased . Probably the greatest application of
light metals is in the construction of aircraft.
vAt present , the metals that serves as the base of the
principal light alloys are aluminum and magnesium .Titanium
and its alloys are included in this group since they have
density much lower than that of steel.
 ZINC
§ Centuries before zinc was discovered in the metallic form, its
ores were used for making brass and zinc compounds were
used for healing wounds and sore eyes. Brass was produced
by the Romans in the time of Augustus (20 B.C. - 14 A.D.).
§ 75ppm (.oo7%) of earth’s crust.
§ 24th most abundant element on Earth.
§ 4th most common metal in use with annual production of
around 10 million tons.
§ Found in association with base metals.
§ Large deposits in Australia, Canada and the United States.
§ At the current rate of consumption, these reserves are
estimated to be depleted sometime between 2027 and 2055.
§ Naturally occurring zinc is composed of 5 stable isotopes, Zn-
64, Zn-66, Zn-67, Zn-68 and Zn-70 with Zn-64 being the
most abundant (48.63% natural abundance).
ZINC(Zn) General Properties
 Processing
o 95% of the zinc is mined from Zinc Blende ore(ZnS)
deposits mixed with sulfides of the Copper, Iron and Lead.
o Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.

1. Froth flotation(zinc of about 50% is reached by this

process).
Main impurities after froth flotation are sulphur
(32%), iron (13%), and SiO2 (5%).
2. Roasting converts the zinc sulphideconcentrate
produced during processing to zinc oxide:
2 ZnS + 3 O2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
3. After that zinc oxide Is treated with carbon or carbon
monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the metal, which is
distilled as zinc vapor. The zinc vapor is collected in a
condenser.
2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO2
4. Zinc oxide is converted into Zinc sulphate by treating it
with Sulphuric acid.
ZnO + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O

5. After this process electrolysis is done with Lead as anode

and Aluminium as cathode. Zn is collected on Aluminium .
 Alloys
• Nickel Silvers : Alloys of Cu(50-70), Zn(5-40), Ni(5-30).
Good corrosion resistance, ductile, high Young’s
modulus,
good luster etc.
Used for screws, rivets, costume jewelry, surgical
equipments etc.
• Al-Zn Alloys :
Good corrosion resistance, good machineability, high
strength etc.
Used for aircraft str. Parts, turret housings, radio
equipments, die casting.
• Brasses : Two types of brasses:-
α-Brass(5-36%Zn)
1. Yellow α Brass(20-36%): Good strength, corrosion
resistance, high ductility
Used for drastic cold working operations.
2. Red Brasses(5-20% Zn): High corrosion resistance,
 α+β Brass(36-48%Zn) : Middle phase of both types.
Naval Brass(60cu,39.75Zn,.75Sn): Used for propeller
shafts, piston rods etc.
Forging Brass(60cu,38Zn,2Pb): Used for hot
forging, plumbing parts etc.
 Applications
Ø The most important application of zinc and the
largest use of the metal is as an anti-corrosion
agent.
Ø Zinc used as material for the negative terminus or
anode in batteries.
Ø Zinc is used as a major alloying element.
Ø Brass is used for utensils.
Ø Brass is used for sculptures.
Ø Zinc alloys are used in die casting.
Ø Zinc is used for sheet metal.
Ø Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semi conductive
alloy that can be divided into an array of small
sensing devices.
Ø Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in
 MAGNESIUM
ØCommercially pure magnesium has a specific gravity of 1.74 and
is 99.8 percent pure.
ØIn the annealed condition the wrought metal has a tensile
strength of about 27000 lb/in.2 and elongation of 15% in 2 in.
ØIt can be cold-rolled to a strength of about 37000 lb/in.2 but is
cold-formed with difficulty.
ØThe pure metal is used largely in Magnesium base alloys as a
de-oxidiser and alloying agent in non-ferrous metals, in vacuum-
tube and dry-rectifier manufacture, and in pyrotechnics.
ØThe desirable low specific gravity of Magnesium is offset by two
disadvantages: namely, lack of stiffness and ease of oxidation.
ØThe modulus elasticity of Magnesium is only 6.5×106 lb/in2
compared with 10.3×106 and 29.5×106 lb/in2 for Aluminium and
steel respectively.
 COATING OF Mg ALLOYS
Ø Magnesium and its alloys has poor resistance to corrosion,
particularly in salt water and salt atmosphere thus requiring
a protective surface coating.

Ø A protective coating may be applied to Magnesium and its

alloys by dipping the material into a dichromate bath of by
electrolytic anodizing.

Ø Electrolytic anodizing treatment has the advantage of

abrasion resistance and improved resistance to salts spray
and provide an excellent base for paint.

Ø The coating is applied in an aqueous acidic electrolyte

containing phosphate, fluoride and chromate ions.
 ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN Mg
Ø The alloying elements commonly added to Mg are Al, Zn,Mn
and for special purposes Sn,Zr,Ce,Th and Be.
Ø Cu, Fe and Ni are considered impurities and must be kept at a
minimum to provide the best corrosion resistance in the alloy.
Ø Al in amounts ranging from 3-10% is the principle alloying
element in most Mg alloys. It increases the strength, hardness
and cast-ability of Mg.In excess of about 10%, the alloy
becomes brittle.
Ø . Zn is used together with Al in Mg based alloys in amounts
upto about 3% to increase salt water corrosion resistance and
to offset the harmful effects of Fe and Cu impurities. It also
improves casting properties. An excessive amount of Zn
produces porosity and brittleness because of the formation of
the compound MgZn2
ØManganese has a very limited solubility in magnesium ,
particularly in the presence of Al. It is used In magnesium-
aluminum and magnesium –aluminum-zinc alloys in quantities less
than about 0.5percent to improve corrosion resistance and weld
ability without effecting the strength properties.

ØSilicon is not soluble in magnesium ,but it forms the compound

Mg 2Si. Which increases the hardness of the alloy. It is usually held
below 0.30% to avoid extreme brittleness.

ØSn is soluble in Mg up to about 15% at 1200F(649 C), decreasing

rapidly insolubility to room temperature with the precipitation of
the beta phase(Mg2Sn). A Mg-Al-Mn alloy containing 5% Sn has
improved hammer-forging properties.
 CLASSIFICATION OF Mg
ALLOYS

ON THE BASIS OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS (ASTM
DESIGNATION B275-59), THE Mg ALLOYS ARE BROADLY
CLASSIFIED AS:

ØCASTING Mg ALLOYS
DESIGNATIONS
For example:
As an example of this designation system,
consider magnesium alloy AZ81A-T4.
• The first part of the designation, AZ, signifies
that aluminium and zinc are the two principal
alloying elements.
• The second part of the designation, 81, gives the
rounded-off percentages of aluminium and zinc
(8 and 1, respectively).
• The third part, A, indicates that it is the fifth alloy
standardized with 8% Al and 1% Zn as the
principal alloying additions.
• The fourth part, T4, denotes that the alloy is
solution heat-treated.
 Mg CASTING ALLOYS
vTHE FIRST GROUP OF ALLOYS
CONTAINS Al AND Zn AS THE ALLOYING
ELEMENTS.
vPOSSESS GOOD CASTING
CHARACTERISTICS.
vDEVELOP HIGH STRENGTH.
vHAVE STABLE PROPERTIES AT
TEMPERATURES AS HIGH AS ABOUT
 Mg WROUGHT ALLOYS

vMAY BE ROLLED AS SHEET AND

PLATE, EXTRUDED AS BARS, SHAPES,
OR TUBINGS , AND FORGED BY PRESS
OR HAMMER FORGING.
vREADILY HOT WORKED AND FORMED
AT TEMPERATURES OF 400-700F.
vENDURANCE CURVES SIMILAR TO
THAT OF Al ALLOYS.
 NICKEL

• Nickel is the one of the most important metals used in the

engineering. Pure nickel finds considerable application
where resistance to corrosion is required under certain
conditions. It finds extensive use in the chemical industry
and in the production of caustic soda.

• It serves as an excellent coatings for the electroplating of

chromium. Nickel clad steel is used for the construction of
heavy tanks and kettles.

• “A” nickel is commercially pure nickel which is obtainable in

the wrought form and contains 99.4 % nickel with the
remainder particularly cobalt.
• “D” nickel> An alloy of the nickel containing 4.5% manganese
and is used where improved resistance to the attack by sulfur
compounds at temperature below about 1000F(540°C) is
desired.

• “E ” nickel > It is similar to the D nickel and contain 2%

manganese and is used for the similar purposes.

• “L” nickel > It contain low carbon content and is used for the
applications where the large plastic deformations involved in
the forming. This material is not as the work harden as the
others.

• “Z” nickel> alloy of the nickel contain 4.5 % aluminum. This

material is subjected to precipitation hardening and have good
combination of the high strength and resistance to corrosion. It
 NICKEL BASE ALLOYS

• The alloys that contains a substantial portion of the nickel

are of the great commercial importance.

• There are low expansion alloys contain 36% nickel ,the

glass sealing alloys with 30-50% nickel ,the alloys with low
temperature coefficient of modulus of elasticity, and the
magnetic alloys containing up to about 65% nickel.

• The alloys containing up to 50% nickel are classified as

nickel based alloys.
 MONEL

• MONEL containing 67% Nickel 30% copper and containing

small amount of iron and manganese. The Monels are
particularly used in the applications that required resistance
to acids alkalis, brines water and food products. The
Monelfamily of alloys consist of five composition : Monel ,
R-Monel , K- Monel , H-Monel , S-Monel .

R-Monel > It possesses same general characteristics as

Monel , but it is a free machining alloy intended for
processing in the automatic screw machine. The improved
machining qualities are derived from the addition of 0.025
to 0.060 % sulfur.

K-Monel > It is a precipitation hardenable Monel which

contains 3% aluminum. Its strength approaches to that of
heat treated alloy steel and having similar corrosion
• S-Monel > It is used primarily in casting and containing
about 4% silicon. This alloy is responsive to precipitation
hardening. A hardness of about 350 Brinell make it suitable
for use when resistance to galling and erosion is important
as in valve seats and where sliding contact is involved
under corrosive conditions.

• H-Monel> It is similar to the s Monel but contain 2.75-

3.25% silicon. This alloy cannot be treated to as high a
strength and hardness as the s-Monel , but for many
application it is adequate.
• Inconel > It consist of 80% nickel,14% chromium and
remainder is iron. Its specific gravity is 8.55 and melting
point is 1395°C . It can be cast, rolled and cold drawn. It is
used for making springs which have to withstand very high
temperature and are exposed to corrosive action.

• Nichrome > It consist of 65% nickel,15% chromium and

20% iron. It is used for making electric resistance wires for
electric furnaces and heating elements.

• Nimonic > It consist of 80% nickel and 20% chromium. It is

widely used in the gas turbine engine.
 COPPER -NICKEL ALLOYS

• The addition of nickel to the copper has marked effect on

the color of the alloy .The alloy become whiter in
appearance until it 2% nickel it is practically white.

• An alloy contain 45% nickel with remainder copper has very

high resistivity and an extremely low temperature
coefficient of resistivity which make its use in certain types
of resistors. Used extensively in the thermocouples . this
alloy is commonly called “constantan”.
 CUPRONICKEL

• It is a term which is not necessarily applied to any specific

alloy, although it has used principally in connection with the
alloy containing 15,20,30% nickel with remainder copper.

• Others have been employed containing 2.5,5,10& 25%

nickel. 30% cupronickel alloy has been used with
considerable success for condenser tubes and tubing in
conducting salt water and other corroding substances.

• The alloy containing lower nickel content such as 20%

cupronickel alloy are used for turbine blades and for parts
requiring resistance to corrosion and erosion. These alloys
are formed by hot forging and cold working operations.
 NICKEL SILVER

• The alloys referred to as nickel silver, their importance

principally to their color and corrosion-resistance
characteristics. The composition of nickel silver varies
widely, but it is usually customary to maintain the copper
content between 60 to 65 percent .These alloys can be
obtained in cast, rolled, and extruded forms. Nickel silver is
used principally as the base for silver-plated ware, the
advantage being that in the event of wear of the silver
plate, the color of the base substance does not differ
greatly from that of the silver plate.
 HIGH TEMPRATURE ALLOYS

• Those alloys which can withstand temperature in excess of

2012F are called high temperature alloy. They are used in
components of nuclear plants, jet and rocket engines.

• Incoloy > It is a nickel base alloy. It consist of 42% nickel,

13% chromium,6% molybdenum 2.4% titanium 0.4%
carbon and remaining is iron.

• Hastelloy > It consist of 45% nickel, 22% chromium ,9%

molybdenum, 1.5% cobalt, 0.5% tungsten 0.15% carbon
and remaining is iron.

• Vitallium> it consist of 62% cobalt,28% chromium,5.5%

molybdenum, 2.5% nickel, 1.7%iron and 0.28% carbon.
NOMINAL COMPOSITION OF NICKEL
BASED ALLOYS
 OBTAINING ALUMINA(BAUXITE)
v Mine Bauxite from Earth

v Crush and spray with water.

v Kiln-dry

v Mix with soda ash and crushed lime.

v Process in digester

v Reduce under pressure

v Settling tank where additional impurities are removed.

v Precipitator

v Thickener
 ALUMINIUM HISTORY

v Most Abundant Metal in Earth’s Crust

v 1825 discovered

v 1852 $545 per pound

v 1888 Economical Processing

 PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM

v Commercially pure aluminum with a specific gravity of 2.71 is

99% pure ,the remainder consisting principally of iron and silicon .
v In the annealed state , it has a tensile strength of 13,000 lb/in^2
.with an elongation of about 40% in 2 in.
v Its resistance to action of atmosphere and to several chemicals
gives it further advantages , although commercially pure
aluminum is not usually resistant to strong alkalies or to some
weak alkaline solutions.
v Its corrosion resistance under oxidizing conditions depends upon
the natural development of an aluminum oxide surface.
v On weight basis ,the electrical conductivity of aluminum is about
200% that of copper; on a volume basis ,it is about 61% that of
copper.
v The aluminum alloys are used most extensively for structural
purposes
 ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM

v The alloying elements commonly used in commercial

aluminium alloys include copper, silicon, magnesium
,mangnese ,and occasionally zinc, nickel, and chromium.

v The overall efect of these alloys additions is to raise the tensile

strength,yeild strength, and hardness with corresponding
reduction of percentage elongation.

v Alloying elements are added extensively to aluminum casting

to improve casting qualities as well as mechanical properties..
•

•
v Copper has been the principal alloying element in aluminum for
many years. It is employed in amounts up to 4% in wrought alloys and
up to about 8% in casting.Its effect is to decrease shrinkage and to
provide a basis for age hardening in many aluminium alloys.

vSilicon is probably second to copper in its importance as an alloying

element ,principally in casting alloys.It is used in amounts ranging
from about 1% to 14%.
Silicon improves casting qualities, such as fluidity ,in addition to
providing corrosion resistance,low thermal expansion,and high thermal
conductivity.

vMagnesium is alloyed with aluminium in amounts ranging from 1% to

10%.Such alloys are lighter than aluminium, posses good mechanical
properties,and are easily machined.

vZinc is added in amounts up to 10%, to improve mechanical

properties.

vManganese and chromium are added in small amounts to increase

both strength and corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ALUMINIUM
ALLOYS
v The aluminium alloys are broadly classified as:
• (1)casting alloys
• (2)wrought alloys
•
 CAST ALLOY DESIGNATION SYSTEM

v No classification system for cast aluminium alloys has

international acceptance. That of the Aluminium Association of the
United States (AAUS) is the most widely used.

v The cast alloy designation system is based on a 3 digit-plus

decimal designation xxx.x (i.e. 356.0).  The first digit (Xxx.x)
indicates the principal alloying element, which has been added to
the aluminum alloy
●The second and third digits are significant in 1xx.x series, in which
they provide the minimum aluminium percentage above 99% .For
other series second and third digits (xXX.x) are arbitrary numbers
given to identify a specific alloy in the series. The number following
the decimal point indicates whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or an
ingot (.1 or .2).  A capital letter prefix indicates a modification to a
specific alloy.
Example: Alloy - A356.0 the capital A (Axxx.x) indicates a
modification of alloy 356.0. The number 3 (A3xx.x) indicates that it is
of the silicon plus copper and/or magnesium series.  The 56 (Ax56.0)
identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x series, and the .0 (Axxx.0)
indicates that it is a final shape casting and not an ingot.
 ALUMINIUM WROUGHT ALLOYS

v The AAA (Aluminium Association of America) classification for

wrought aluminium alloys has been adopted by the IADS
(International Alloy Development System).The classification is
based on a four –digit system.

v We shall first consider the 4-digit wrought aluminum alloy

identification system.

v The first digit (Xxxx) indicates the principal alloying element,

which has been added to the aluminum alloy and is often used to
describe the aluminum alloy series, i.e., 1000 series, 2000 series,
3000 series, up to 8000 series.
●The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a
modification of the specific alloy, and). The third and fourth digits are
significant in the 1xxx series but not in the others. In the 1xxx series
the last two digits provides the minimum aluminium percentage
above 99% ; thus 1145 has a minimum purity of 99.45%; 1200 has a
minimum purity of 99.00%. In all other series, the third and fourth
digits are simply serial numbers; thus 5082 and 5083 are two distinct
aluminium-magnesium alloys. The second digit has a curious
function: it indicates a close relationship: thus 5352 is closely related
to 5052 and 5252; and 7075 and 7475 differ only slightly in
composition.
● In addition to four digits, specific letters are added to denote the
thermal/mechanical treatment given.

O annealed

H strain hardened
H1 strain hardened only
H2 strain hardened and recovery annealed
H3 strain hardened and stabilized
H4 strain hardened and painted
HX2 quarter-hard
HX4 half hard
ALUMINUM
v NOMINAL COMPOSITION OF SOME
CAST ALUMINIUM SAND-CASTING
ALLOYS
vThe nominal ALLOYS.
compositions and
typical
 PROPERTIES OF CAST ALLOYS

v Aluminium-magnesium alloy such as 214 and 220 are corrosion

resistant even in marine atmosphere.

v Aluminium-silicon alloy such as 43 and 356 are noted for excellent

casting characteristics.

v Aluminium-copper-silicon alloy,108,319 combine certain properties

of aluminium copper and aluminium-silicon alloys to produce good
casting characterstics ,weldibility,moderate strength and pressure
tightness.
 Aluminium wrought alloys

v The nominal composition and typical mechanical properties of

some standard wrought aluminium alloys are given in table:
 PROPERTIES OF SOME IMPORTANT
WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
v Alloys such as 1100,3003,3004,4043,5052,5056,7072 are
relatively low in cost,corrosion resistant and are welded easily.

v Alloys 2014,2018,2025,4032,and 6151 are forging alloys,2014 is

particularly used in aircraft-propeller forging.

v Alloys 6053,6063 are extrusion alloys. The ability of 6063 to

extrude compliclated shapes makes it useful for architecture work
 L
EA
What are the origins of the word Lead ?
The name originates from the Greek word protos meaning 'first'
and the Symbol Origin 'Pb' from the Latin word plumbum
meaning 'lead'. Plumbism is the medical term for lead poisoning

The Properties of the Element

Lead

Name of Element : Lead

Symbol of Element : Pb
Atomic Number of Lead : 82
Atomic Mass: 207.2 amu
Melting Point: 327.5 °C - 600.65
°K
Boiling Point: 1740.0 °C - 2013.15
°K
Number of Protons/Electrons in
Lead : 82
Number of Neutrons in Lead : 125
Lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and (most
abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these
metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains
86.6% lead. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and
anglesite (PbSO4).
The chief ore of lead is galena. In
order to extract lead from
galena, the ore is first
concentrated by froth floatation
The concentrated ore is roasted
in air to convert it into lead oxide
(PbO) and lead sulphate (PbSO4).
Some galena is also left
unchanged. If the air supply is
now reduced; the unreacted PbS
reacts with PbO and PbSO4 to

In another method, the mixed

sulphides (PbS and ZnS) are
roasted to obtain oxides. The
mixed oxides are reduced to their
respective metals with coke by
The properties of lead that make it useful in a wide
variety of applications are density, malleability, lubricity,
flexibility, electrical conductivity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion, all of which are quite high; and elastic
modulus, elastic limit, strength, hardness, and melting
Lead also has good resistance to
corrosion under a wide variety of
conditions. Lead is easily alloyed
with many other metals and casts
with little difficulty.

The high density of lead (11.35

g/cm3, at room temperature)
makes it very effective in
shielding against x-rays and
gamma radiation. The
combination of high density, high
limpness (low stiffness), and high
damping capacity makes lead an
excellent material for deadening
The low tensile strength and low creep strength of lead must
always be considered when designing lead components. The
principal limitation on the use of lead as a structural material is
not its low tensile strength but its susceptibility to creep. Lead
continuously deforms at low stresses and this deformation
ultimately results in failure at stresses far below the ultimate
tensile strength. The low strength of lead does not necessarily

Alloying with other metals, notably calcium or antimony, is a

common method of strengthening lead for many applications. In
general, consideration should always be given to supporting
lead structures by lead-covered steel straps. When lead is used
as a lining in a structure made of a stronger material, the lining
can be supported by bonding it to the structure.
Compositions and Grades

Bellow is listed the Unified Numbering System (UNS)

designations for various pure lead grades and lead-base alloys.

vPure leads L50000 - L50099

vLead - silver alloys L50100 - L50199
vLead - arsenic alloys L50300 - L50399
vLead - barium alloys L50500 - L50599
vLead - calcium alloys L50700 - L50899
vLead - cadmium alloys L50900 - L50999
vLead - copper alloys L51100 - L51199
vLead - indium alloys L51500 - L51599
vLead - lithium alloys L51700 - L51799
vLead - antimony alloys L52500 - L53799
vLead - tin alloys L54000 - L55099
vLead - strontium alloys L55200 - L55299
 Grades are 1)pure lead (also called corroding lead)
2)common lead (both containing 99.94% min lead),
3)chemical lead and acid-copper lead (both
containing 99.90% min lead)
4)Lead of higher specified purity (99.99%) is also
available in commercial quantities. Specifications
other than ASTM B 29 for grades of pig lead include federal
specification QQ-L-171, German standard DIN 1719, British
Corroding Lead. Most lead produced is pure (or corroding) lead
(99.94% min Pb). Corroding lead which exhibits the outstanding
corrosion resistance typical of lead and its alloys. Corroding lead
is used in making pigments, lead oxides, and a wide variety of
other lead chemicals.

Chemical Lead. Refined lead with a residual copper content of

0.04 to 0.08% and a residual silver content of 0.002 to 0.02% is
particularly desirable in the chemical industries and thus is
called chemical lead.

Copper-bearing lead provides corrosion protection comparable

to that of chemical lead in most applications that require high
corrosion resistance. Common lead, which contains higher
Lead-Base Alloys

vBecause lead is very soft and ductile, it is normally used

Commercially as lead alloys. Antimony, tin, arsenic, and calcium are
the most common alloying elements.

vAntimony generally is used to give greater hardness and

strength, as in storage battery grids, sheet, pipe, and castings.
Antimony contents of lead-antimony alloys can range from 0.5 to
25%, but they are usually 2 to 5%.

vLead-calcium alloys have replaced lead-antimony alloys in a

number of applications, in particular, storage battery grids and
casting applications. These alloys contain 0.03 to 0.15% Ca. More
recently, aluminum has been added to calcium-lead and calcium-
tin-lead alloys as a stabilizer for calcium.

vAdding tin to lead or lead alloys increases hardness and strength,

but lead-tin alloys are more commonly used for their good melting,
casting, and wetting properties, as in type metals and solders. Tin
gives the alloy the ability to wet and bond with metals such as
steel and copper; unalloyed lead has poor wetting characteristics.

vTin combined with lead and bismuth or cadmium forms the

principal ingredient of many low-melting alloys.
A solder is a fusible metal alloy with a melting point or melting
range of 90 to 450 °C (200 to 840 °F), used in a process called
soldering where it is melted to join metallic surfaces. It is
especially useful in electronics and plumbing. Alloys that melt
between 180 and 190 °C are the most commonly used.
Tin/lead solders, also called soft solders,
are commercially available with tin
concentrations between 5% and 70% by
weight. The greater the tin concentration,
the greater the solder’s tensile and
shear strengths. At the retail level, the
two most common alloys are 60/40 Sn/Pb
which melts at 370 °F or 188 °C and
63/37 Sn/Pb used principally in electrical
work.

vIt has the lowest melting point (183 °C

In plumbing, a higher proportion
or 361.4 °F) of the
of all leadtin/lead
was used, commonly
alloys; and
50/50. This had the advantage of making the alloy solidify more
slowly, so that it could be wiped over the joint to ensure
watertightness.
Terne is an alloy coating of lead and tin used to cover steel, in
the ratio of 20% tin and 80% lead. Terne is used to coat sheet
steel to inhibit corrosion. It is the one of the cheapest alloys
suitable for this, and the tin content is kept at a minimum while
still adhering to a hot-dipped iron sheet, to minimize the cost.
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