2.

Wind characteristics

Nature of wind from meteorology

Meteorology: the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena; the study of weather and climate

Micrometeorology: the study of detailed structure of atmospheric flow near the ground, ex: the mean wind speed profile, the atmospheric turbulence, etc. (some studies in micrometeorology can be directly used by structural engineers)

Climatology:

the prediction of wind conditions at a given geographical location, ex: extreme wind climatology

Temperature of atmosphere
original energy source

Sun
6000K

short wave atmosphere is transparent

Earth long wave: absorbed by atmosphere

north pole

Earth 250K The earth is the direct energy source of wind

The earths heat balance

[Source: http://clivebest.com/blog/?p=4432]

Humphreys experiment

Tube 1 is opened: flow A B Tube 1 & 2 are closed tA : raised

1

& tube 2 is opened: flow B A

tB : maintained
Fluid in A expands

heating

Tube 1 is closed, tube 2 is opened no flow

Simple model of atmospheric circulation

Cold Pole General circulation

A = column of air above equator B = column of air above pole

Hot

Equator
[Source: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter10/single_cell.html]

Air

Heating Solar / terrestial

Wind = motion of air with respect to the earths surface,

fundamentally caused by variable solar heating of the earths atmosphere

Atmospheric hydrodynamics
The motion of an elementary mass of air is determined by the Newtons second law:

F m a

The forces F include: (1) The horizontal pressure gradient (2) The Coriolis force (3) The centrifugal force (4) The friction force

Pressure gradient & Coriolis

1. The horizontal pressure gradient: Vertical: main pressure, decrease with height Changes in pressure gradient Horizontal: changes are small wrt vertical Wind direction: high pressure low pressure (isobar) 2. The Coriolis force (apparent force)

Fc 2mv

v : the velocity vector of the mass : the angular velocity vector of the earth

Centrifugal & Friction

3. The centrifugal force:

mv r

v
F
vgr : gradient wind speed

r : radius of curvature
4. The friction force The surface of the earth retards the flow of air by the effects of friction Boundary layer of the atmostphere
free atmosphere (frictionless wind)

d : boundary layer depth

earth surface

Tricellular model of atmospheric circulation

Considering: earth rotation/friction, seasons, geographic Tricellular meridional circulations

Horse latitude

Secondary circulations

Traveling High and Low pressure areas,

by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere

Wind directions

The motion of air

relative to the earth

surface is determined, in unaccelerated flow, by the balance among these forces

Mean pressure systems and representative wind vectors at the surface for (a) January and (b) July. The red dashed lines represent the equatorial trough (and monsoon trough over Asia).
[Source: http://www.goes-r.gov]

Moonsoons & Hurricanes

Hurricane Gladys as seen by the Apollo crew

[Source: http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo7.htm]

Moonsoons: seasonal reversing winds associated with asymmetric heating of land and sea (summer: ocean to land, with heavy rains)
[Source: http://www.taringa.net]

Tropical cyclones with surface wind speed >120km/h Diameter is in the order of 100km

Depth is in the order of 10km

Local wind
Small-scale / negligible influence on general circulation

Tall convective clouds, produced by upward motion of warm, moist air

Thunderstorm

[Source: Wind effects on structures, Simiu, p.29]

Tornado
[Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg]

Foehn wind
[Source: http://fineartamerica.com/featured/foehn-wind-artwork-gary-hincks.html]

Most powerful wind A vortex of air: ~300m diameter, 30-100 km/h

Dry, warm, down-slope wind / leeward of a mountain range

The Beaufort scale

Degree 0 1 2 3 4 5 Wind speed (m/s) 0 0.5 0.5 1.7 1.7 3.3 3.3 5.2 5.2 7.4 7.4 9.8 Description of wind Calm Light airs Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Smoke rises nearly vertically Wind felt on face Leaves move Small branches move, wind extends flags Large branches also move Wind effects

6
7 8 9 10 11

9.8 12.4
12.4 15.2 15.2 18.2 18.2 21.5 21.5 25.1 25.1 29

Strong breeze
Light gale Moderate gale Fresh gale Strong gale Destructive gale

Saplings move
Strong branches bend, wind is heard in buildings Impeded walking, branches break, tree-trunks sway Wind displaces lighter objects, strong branches and saplings break, damage to chimneys Trees are uprooted, telegraph poles break Severe damage

12

29 and over

Hurricane

Disastrous damage