TOPIC 1 : BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 1.

2 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide Disaccharides Polysaccharides

CHARACTERISTIC OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Consist of carbon, hydrogen & oxygen in the proportion, 1:2:1 2. General formula : (CH2O)n, n = 3 or > 3. Example: glucose (C6H12O6), sucrose (C12H22O11). 4. 3 groups : Monosaccharide, disaccharide & polysaccharide

Monosaccharide (one sugar unit)

1. Consist of 3 6 carbon

Simple sugars, only one basic unit which can be used to form disaccarides and polysaccharides. monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide via condensation Monosaccharide + monosaccharide + monosaccharide + > = polysaccharide 2. Physical properties : sweet in taste dissolve in water can be crystallised.

Crystallization

3. Chemical properties : Aldose or ketose ; position of carbonyl group Aldose ; END of the chain contain CHO [aldehyde] Ketose ; MIDDLE of the chain C = 0 [ketone] All are reducing sugars, react with Benedicts or Fehling solution to give a brick-red precipitate. Reduce alkaline copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) into insoluble copper (I) oxide (Cu2O).

Cu2+

e-

Cu+

Blue solution brick-red precipitate 4. Based on number of carbons in the backbone, monosaccharides can be classified into trioses, pentoses & hexoses.

5. Trioses (3C)

a) E.g. glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone b) Intermediate products of metabolism during breakdown of glucose (glcolysis) or synthesis (photosynthesis) of it. 6. Pentose (5C) a) E.g. ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose b) Can exist in an open chain form or a ring structure. E.g. ribose & deoxyribose c) Physological roles : Synthesise of nucleotides, ribose for the formation of ribonucleotides in RNA & deoxyribose for the formation of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA. Synthesis of coenzymes such as NAD, NADP, FAD & coenzyme A. Synthesise of polysaccharides. Use as ribulose bisphosphate, a carbon dioxide receptor in photosynthesis.

Deoxyribose & Ribose

Deoxyribose has the same structure as ribose except that it does not have an oxygen atom at its second carbon atom.

7. Hexoses (6C) a) E.g. glucose, galactose, fructose b) Fructose has ketone group whereas glucose has aldehyde group. Both are reducing sugars. c) Fructose, galactose and glucose are isomers (have same empirical formula). d) Glucose molecule can exist in two forms i.e. -glucose and -glucose depending on the OH group at the carbon 1 atom. e) Physiologial roles: Source of ATP in respiration Balance water potential between the inside and outside of cells, so as to maintain the shape of cells. E.g. red blood cells. Synthesise disaccharides (sucrose, lactose). Synthesise polysaccharides (starch, glycogen & cellulose). Synthesise other substances (fats & amino acids in the body when required).

Monosaccharides (Glucose)
Glucose as monomer ; - glucose, -glucose Position of hydroxyl group (OH) at carbon 1 atom

Disaccharides (Two sugar units)

1. Double-sugars formed from 2 units of monosaccharides. monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide Condensation Remove H2O Form glycosidic bond 2. Disaccharide = monosaccharide + monosaccharide Hydrolysis Use H2O 3. Physical properties : a) All sweet b) All soluble in water c) All crystalline substances

4. Chemical properties : a) Reducing sugars except sucrose b) Can be hydrolysed to form monosaccharides by heating in dilute acid or by specific enzymes. 5. Examples: maltose, sucrose and lactose. 6. Maltose (glucose + glucose), by -1,4 glycosidic bond. 7. The reaction is condensation when a molecule of water is removed. 8. Occur in the stroma of chloroplast, in amyloplast of parenchyma cells & cytoplastin of liver and muscle cells. 9. Sucrose (glucose + fructose), by -1,2 glycosidic bond. 10. A condensation reaction that occurs in mesophyll cells and the sucrose is transported away by phloem. Common reaction in sugar cane, sugar beet, flower and fruit cells, where sucrose is stored.

Sugar beet

Polysaccharides (many sugar units)

1. Complex carbohydrates, biopolymer (long chains of molecules which are made of repeating units of monosaccharides. 8 monosaccharide / > [polymerisation] Condensation Produce H2O Form glycosidic bond 2. Physical properties: a) not sweet b) insoluble in water. Form colloids if dissolve in hot water because they are large molecules. c) cannot be crystallised but form amorphous mass if desiccated. d) compact & not osmotically active in cells. e) can be extracted and purified to form white powder.

3. Chemical properties: a) No reducing power b) Starch & glycogen are easily hydrolysed to maltose by amylase. c) Cellulose can be hydrolysed by cellulase, which only produced by microbes and snails. 4. Types : Starch (amylose / amylopectin), glycogen & cellulose. 5. Starch is formed by -1,4 glycosidic bonds in amylose, an unbranched component. One amylose synthetase is involved. Amylopectin, a branched component is formed by both -1,4 glycosidic bonds and -1,6 glycosidic bonds. So, two amylopectin synthetases are involved.

Starch

19

6. The reaction is polymerisation by adding one glucose monoer to maltose at a time to elongate in chloroplast & amyloplast. 7. Glycogen is a branched biopolymer with both 1,4 glycosidic and -1,6 glycosidic bonds. It is formed in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of both liver and muscle cells, also by polymerisation catalysed by two synthetases. After forming a straight chain of more than 12 units, a short chin is cut by a hydrolase. Then , the chain is transferred to another chain to from a branch forming -1,6 glycosidic bond catalysed by another synthetase. 8. Cellulose is formed by -1,4 glycosidic bonds into a straight biopolymer. The -glucose units are catalysed by synthetase to form long chains at the plasma membrane.

Glycogen

21

9. The enzymes involved are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum packaged into vesicles. The enzymes are released at the plasma membrane to form cellulose molecules, and then microfilaments to form new layer of cell wall. 10. After plant cells divide, vesicles gather in the central plate and fuse. The enzymes in the vesicles form cellulose molecules and microfilaments that form the new cell wall. The membrane of vesicles form new plasma membrane at both sides of the new cross wall.

Cellulose

24

Functions of disaccharides & polysaccharides in living organisms

Disaccharides 1. An intermediate in the synthesis of polysaccharides from maltose. An intermediate when starch or glycogen is broken down to release glucose. It acts as a control in both directions. 2. Sucrose acts as a medium to transport carbohydrate in phloem. 3. Lactose that is found in milk acts as food and needs to be hydrolysed before it can be used. Thus, the control of glucose and galactose release is determined by the rate of hydrolysis of the lactose.

Polysaccharides 1. Starch is stored as food reserve in plant cells. 2. Glycogen (animal starch) is found in the liver and muscles as food reserve. Glycogen can be converted to free glucose and released into the blood in between meals when blood glucose fall. It acts to control blood sugar level. 3. Cellulose is used to form cell wall for protection from physical injuries and haemolysis. It helps in the support of plants through turgor pressure and mechanically when it is mixed with lignin.

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1.3 Lipids Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids