Advancedigital Communications: Instructor: Dr. M. Arif Wahla

College of Telecommunication MCS
National University of Sciences and

Technology - NUST
Instructor: Dr. M. Arif Wahla
arif@mcs.edu.pk

What are we studying ?
Adv Digital Comm - Dr. M. Arif Wahla
Digital Communications Systems
Base Band Modulation Schemes
Sampling (PAM) . . . Baseband & Bandpass Systems
Quantization (PCM) . . . Uniform and Non-uniform
PCM Waveforms . . . Line Coding
Time Division Multiplexing T1/E1 Standards
Baseband Detection/Demodulation
Matched Filter and Correlators
Threshold Detection
ISI and Equalization
Band pass Modulation Techniques
11:50 AM 2
Modulation
Modulation is the process of facilitating the transfer of information over a medium
Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK)
Phase Shift Keying
(PSK)
On-Off Keying (OOK)
11:50 AM 3
A
i
0
( ) ( ) cos[ ( ) cos[ ( )] General form s t A t t A t t t u e = ( )| = +
4 11:50 AM
The study of signal spaces provides us with a geometric method of conceptualizing the
modulation process.
Signal Spaces
In a physical space when we describe a vector by its coordinates (x, y); the vector is
being described by a linear combination of two functions (1, 0) and (0, 1).

Any vector can be written as a linear combination of these two functions. These functions
are called Basis functions and are orthogonal to each other.
Basis functions should
Have unit energy
should be orthogonal to
every other function
5 11:50 AM
Basis Functions
An important example of terrific basis functions is the pair
of sine and cosine waves of unit amplitude. This special
basis set is used as carriers in all real communications
systems.
Sine and cosine, two orthogonal functions are
the basis set for all modern communications
Sine Cosine
6 11:50 AM
Basis Functions
The concept of I and Q Channels
I and Q projections Polar form
7 11:50 AM
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation
Lets give these two symbols names of s
1
and s
2
. Simplest thing is to have the symbol
stand for just one bit. We define two little packets of the cosine wave, one with zero
phase and second one with a 180 degree different phase.

Symbol Energy =
8 11:50 AM
Creating a BPSK carrier
A bit sequence 0111 0101 0010 1011

s1 s2 s2 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s2
16 symbols are required since each BPSK symbol stands
for one bit
What is a transition?
9 11:50 AM
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) modulation
The dimensionality of a modulation is defined by the number of basis functions used.
Therefore, QPSK a two-dimensional signal. Not because it sends two bits per symbol,
but because it uses two independent signals (a sine and a cosine) to create the symbols.
QPSK signal is an extension of the BPSK signal. Both of these are a type of M-ary signals.
M = 2, makes this a BPSK, M = 4 is QPSK, M = 8, 8PSK and so on.
M-PSK modulations, a. BPSK, b. QPSK, c. also QPSK, d. 8PSK
2 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , 0 , 0,1, 2,.... 1
i c
E i
s t t t T and i M
T M
t
e

| |
= + s s =
|
\ .
Analytical expression can be written as

where
m(t) = transmitting signal pulse shape
A = amplitude of the signal
= carrier phase
The range of the carrier phase can be determined using

For a rectangular pulse, we obtain

( ) ( ) cos[ ( )], 0 , 1, 2,....,
i c i b
s t Am t t t t T i M e | = + s s =
2
( ) , 0 ; m t t T and assume A E
T
= s s =
2 ( 1)
( ) 0,.... 1
i
i
t i M
M
t

= =
10 11:50 AM
2 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , 0 , 0,1, 2,.... 1
i c
E i
s t t t T and i M
T M
t
e

| |
= + s s =
|
\ .
We can now write the analytical expression as

In PSK the carrier phase changes abruptly at the beginning of each signal
interval while the amplitude remains constant
11 11:50 AM
carrier phase changes abruptly at
the beginning of each signal
interval
Constant envelope
2 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , 0 , 0,1, 2,.... 1
i c
E i
s t t t T and i M
T M
t
e

| |
= + s s =
|
\ .
Also can be written as

Furthermore, s
i
(t) may be represented as a linear combination of two
orthogonal functions
1
(t) and
2
(t) as follows

Where

12 11:50 AM
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
M
i
t
T
E
t s
c i
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) (
t
e
2 2 ( 1) 2 ( 1)
cos cos sin sin
c c
E i i
t t
T M M
t t
e e

(
=
(

) (
) 1 ( 2
sin ) (
) 1 ( 2
cos ) (
2 1
t
M
i
E t
M
i
E t s
i

t
=
] sin[
2
) ( ] cos[
2
) (
2 1
t
T
t and t
T
t
c c
e e = =
Using the concept of the orthogonal basis function, we can represent PSK
signals as a two dimensional vector

For M-ary phase modulation M = 2
k
, where k is the number of information
bits per transmitted symbol

In an M-ary system, one of M 2 possible symbols, s
1
(t), , s
m
(t), is
transmitted during each T
s
-second signaling interval

The mapping or assignment of k information bits into M = 2
k
possible phases
may be done in many ways, e.g. for M = 4

13 11:50 AM
1 2
2 ( 1) 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , sin
i
i i
s t E E
M M
t t

| |
=
|
\ .
A preferred assignment is to use Gray code in which adjacent phases
differ by only one binary digit such that only a single bit error occurs in a k-
bit sequence

It is also possible to transmit data encoded as the phase change (phase
difference) between consecutive symbols
This technique is known as Differential PSK (DPSK)

There is no non-coherent detection equivalent for PSK

14 11:50 AM

4
Two BPSK in phase quadrature
QPSK (or 4PSK) is a modulation technique that transmits 2-bit of
information using 4 states of phases
For example

General expression:
15 11:50 AM
2-bit Information
00 0
01 /2
10
11 3/2
Each symbol corresponds
to two bits
s c
s
s
QPSK
T t i
M
i
t f
T
E
t s s s =
(

+ = 0 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
) 1 ( 2
2 cos
2
) (
t
t
16 11:50 AM
M-ary PSK modulation . . .
Modulation equation called the quadrature form
So a phase modulated signal is a combination of two quadrature signals, the amplitude of
which changes in response to the phase change. The modulating signal can be seen as a
vector with I and Q as its x and y components
We need a way to create a signal packet of a particular phase when needed out of a free-
running sine or cosine. This is where Quadrature Modulation with I and Q channels come
into play.
I and Q channels are not just concepts but also how modulators are designed. However,
the signal created by I and Q channels is not what is transmitted, it is the sum or the
difference (makes no difference as long the polar form is consistent) of these two, and that
is the real modulated signal.
1 2
2 ( 1) 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , sin
i
i i
s t E E
M M
t t

| |
=
|
\ .
17 11:50 AM
How the bits are mapped to the possible phases ?
Number the bits such a way that each adjacent phase means just one bit
difference. So that when a phase mistake is made and the most likely one is the
nearest phase, then only one bit is decoded incorrectly. This is called Gray coding.
18 11:50 AM
Constellation diagram
19 11:50 AM
0 3 2 0 3 3 2
1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1
20 11:50 AM
The quadrature form of modulation using I and Q channels
21 11:50 AM
8 PSK modulation . . .
22 11:50 AM
16 QAM
In PSK all points lie on a circle so the I and Q values are related to each other. PSK signals
are constant envelope and all points have the same amplitude. If we allow the amplitude
to change from symbol to symbol, then we get a modulation called Quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM).
M = 16, so that we have 16 symbols, each
representing a four bit word
The signal points lie in rectangle instead of
a circle
1 2
2 ( 1) 2 ( 1)
( ) cos , sin
i
i i
s t E E
M M
t t

| |
=
|
\ .
23 11:50 AM
16 QAM . . .
24 11:50 AM
3
3
-3
3
1
3
-3
1
-1
-3 -3
1
-1
-3
16 QAM . . .
Amplitude Shift Keying

Modulation Process
In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
the amplitude of the carrier is
switched between two (or more)
levels according to the digital
data
For BASK (also called ON-OFF
Keying (OOK)), one and zero are
represented by two amplitude
levels A
1
and A
0

cos( ), 0 1
( )
0, 0 0
i o
i
A t t T binary
s t
t T binary
e | + s s
=

s s
25 11:50 AM
0
( ) ( ) cos[ ( ) cos[ ( )] General form s t A t t A t t t u e = ( )| = +
4.2.4 ASK - Analytical Expression:

where A
i
= peak amplitude

Hence,

where
) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( ) (
0
2
0 0
t A t A t A t s
rms
rms
e e e = = =
26 11:50 AM
0 0
2
2 cos( ) cos( )
E
P t t
T
e e = =
0
2 ( )
cos( ), 0 1
( ) , 1, 2,......
0, 0 0
i
i
E t
t t T binary
s t i M
T
t T binary
e |
+ s s
= =
s s
1 ,...... 2 , 0 , ) (
0
2
= =
}
M i dt t s E
T
i
cos( ), 0 1
( )
0, 0 0
i o
i
A t t T binary
s t
t T binary
e | + s s
=

s s

Where for binary ASK (also known as ON OFF Keying (OOK))

Mathematical ASK Signal Representation
The complex envelope of an ASK signal is:

The magnitude and phase of an ASK signal are:

The in-phase and quadrature components are:

the quadrature component is wasted.
1
( ) ( ) cos( ), 0 1
o o
s t A m t t t T binary e | = + s s
( ) ( )
o
g t A m t =
27 11:50 AM
0 0 , 0 ) (
0
binary T t t s s s =
( ) ( ), ( ) 0
o
A t A m t t = =
( ) ( )
o
x t A m t =
, 0 ) ( = t y
It can be seen that the
bandwidth of ASK
modulated is twice that
occupied by the source
baseband stream

Bandwidth of ASK
Bandwidth of ASK can be found from its power spectral density
The bandwidth of an ASK signal is twice that of the unipolar NRZ line
code used to create it., i.e.,

This is the null-to-null bandwidth of ASK
b
b
T
R B
2
2 = =
28 11:50 AM
If raised cosine rolloff pulse shaping is used, then the bandwidth is:

Spectral efficiency of ASK is half that of a baseband unipolar NRZ line
code
This is because the quadrature component is wasted
95% energy bandwidth

2(1 )
b
B r R = +
b
b
R
T
B 3
3
= =
29 11:50 AM
4.2.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In FSK, the instantaneous carrier frequency is switched between 2 or more levels
according to the baseband digital data
data bits select a carrier at one of two frequencies
the data is encoded in the frequency
Until recently, FSK has been the most widely used form of digital modulation;Why?
Simple both to generate and detect
Insensitive to amplitude fluctuations in the channel
FSK conveys the data using distinct carrier frequencies to represent symbol states
An important property of FSK is that the amplitude of the modulated wave is
constant
Waveform

30 11:50 AM
2
( ) cos( ), 1,....
i i
E
s t t i M
T
e | = + =
Binary FSK

In BFSK, 2 different frequencies, f
1
and f
2
= f
1
+ f are used to transmit
binary information

Data is encoded in the frequencies
That is, m(t) is used to select between 2 frequencies:
f
1
is the mark frequency, and f
2
is the space frequency

0 1
2
( ) cos 2 ( ), 0
b
b
b
E
s t f t T
T
t | = + s s
31 11:50 AM
1 2
2
( ) cos 2 ( ), 0
b
b
b
E
s t f t T
T
t | = + s s

1
2
cos( ), ( ) 1 1
( )
cos( ), ( ) 1 0
c n
c n
A t when m t or X
s t
A t when m t or X
e |
e |
+ = + =
=

+ = =
Binary Orthogonal Phase FSK

When w
1
an w
2
are chosen so that f
1
(t) and f
2
(t) are orthogonal, i.e.,

form a set of K = 2 basis orthonormal basis functions
1 2
( ) ( ) 0 t t
=
}
32 11:50 AM

2
( ) t
1
(
1
(
2
(
2
(
% Matlab script for generating FM via Phase modulation
clear all;close all;
t0=.15; % signal duration
ts=0.0005; % sampling interval
fc=200; % carrier frequency
kf=100; % Modulation index
fs=1/ts; % sampling frequency
t=[0:ts:t0]; % time vector
df=0.25; % required frequency resolution
%message signal
m=[ones(1,t0/(3*ts)),-1*ones(1,t0/(3*ts)),ones(1,t0/(3*ts)+1)];
int_m(1)=0;
for i=1:length(t)-1 % Integral of m
int_m(i+1)=int_m(i)+m(i)*ts;
end
u=cos(2*pi*fc*t+2*pi*kf*int_m); % phase modulating with the
% integral of the signal

33 11:50 AM
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
The message signal
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time
The modulated signal
34 11:50 AM

Advancedigital Communications: Instructor: Dr. M. Arif Wahla

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College of Telecommunication MCS

National University of Sciences and

Adv Digital Comm - Dr. M. Arif Wahla

Binary Orthogonal Phase FSK

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