NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Nondestructive Testing The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a critical role in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a reliable and cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and implement tests that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and a variety of less visible, but equally troubling events. These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future usefulness of the object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and measured without damaging them. Because it allows inspection without interfering with a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and costeffectiveness. Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections. While technologies are used in NDT that are similar to those used in the medical industry, typically nonliving objects are the subjects of the inspections.

Nondestructive Evaluation

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably with NDT. However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are more quantitative in nature. For example, a NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would also be used to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and orientation. NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture toughness, formability, and other physical characteristics.

NDT/NDE Methods The number of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make measurements is large and continues to grow. Researchers continue to find new ways of applying physics and other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT methods. However, there are six NDT methods that are used most often. These methods are visual inspection, penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, electromagnetic or eddy current testing, radiography, and ultrasonic testing. These methods and a few others are briefly described below. Visual and Optical Testing (VT) Visual inspection involves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The inspector may also use special tools such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, or bore-scopes to gain access and more closely inspect the subject area. Visual examiners follow procedures that range from simple to very complex.

Penetrant Testing (PT) Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then removed from the surface with the help of cleaner, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter, drawing trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes, vivid color contrasts between the penetrant and developer make "bleedout" easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleed-out fluoresce brightly, thus allowing imperfections to be readily seen.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) This NDE method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid). Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrate iron particles near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of the flaw.

Electromagnetic Testing (ET) or Eddy Current Testing Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating magnetic field. The electrical currents are called eddy currents because they flow in circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the material's conductive and permeability properties, can be detected with the proper equipment.

Radiography (RT) Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-radiation to examine parts and products for imperfections is used as a source of radiation. Ra. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope diation is directed through a part and onto film or other imaging media. The resulting shadow graph shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible imperfections are indicated as density changes on the film in the same manner as a medical X-ray shows broken bones.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Ultrasonics use transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material to detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is introduced into a test object and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from the part's geometrical surfaces.

Radiography Test (RT)

Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws are 1. An X-ray machine 2. Radioactive source Ir-192 (Half life 74 days), Co-60 (half life 5.3 years), in rare cases Cs-137 can be used as a source of Gama rays

Half-Life
Each radioactive substance has a different half-life. The half life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to disintegrate OR the time taken for the activity of a source to fall by one half.

TYPES OF IONISING RADIATION

A) Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of material. B) The beam of radiation must be directed to the middle of the section under examination and must be normal to the material surface at that point, except in special techniques where known defects are best revealed by a different alignment of the beam. The length of weld under examination for each exposure shall be such that the thickness of the material at the diagnostic extremities, measured in the direction of the incident beam, does not exceed the actual thickness at that point by more than 6%. The specimen to be inspected is placed between the source of radiation and the detecting device, usually the film in a light tight holder or cassette, and the radiation is allowed to penetrate the part for the required length of time to be adequately recorded.

C) The result is a two-dimensional projection of the part onto the film, producing a latent image of varying densities according to the amount of radiation reaching each area. It is known as a radiograph, as distinct from a photograph produced by light. Because film is cumulative in its response (the exposure increasing as it absorbs more radiation), relatively weak radiation can be detected by prolonging the exposure until the film can record an image that will be visible after development. The radiograph is examined as a negative, without printing as a positive as in photography. This is because, in printing, some of the detail is always lost and no useful purpose is served.

D) Before commencing a radiographic examination, it is always advisable to examine the component with one's own eyes, to eliminate any possible external defects. If the surface of a weld is too irregular, it may be desirable to grind it to obtain a smooth finish, but this is likely to be limited to those cases in which the surface irregularities (which will be visible on the radiograph) may make detecting internal defects difficult. E) After this visual examination, the operator will have a clear idea of the possibilities of access to the two faces of the weld, which is important both for the setting up of the equipment and for the choice of the most appropriate technique.

Geiger Muller Tube

The Geiger counter is commonly used to detect radiation

The Geiger counter consists of a Geiger Muller tube attached to a counter.

Geiger Muller Tube

The tube is filled with argon gas. Where else is argon gas used?

Personnel Badge
Different radiations pass through or are absorbed by different materials.

Protection against exposure

Exposure to radiation is minimized by applying the principles of external radiation protection:

Keep TIME of exposure to a minimum Maximize the DISTANCE between yourself and the source of radiation as much as possible.

Keep adequate SHIELDING material between the source of radiation and yourself.

Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Dual element transducers contain two independently operated elements in a single housing. One of the elements transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic signal. Active elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities to provide a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special applications, such as the inspection of course grained material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer since this design eliminates the ring down effect that single-element transducers experience (when single-element transducers are operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start receiving reflected signals until the element has stopped ringing from its transmit function). Dual element transducers are very useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each other to create a crossed-beam sound path in the test material.

Advantages 1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part. 2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws. 3. Only one surface need be accessible. 4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces. 5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects. 6. Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and materials in the vicinity. 7. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

Disadvantages 1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians 2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures. 3. Parts that is rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. 4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed. 5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Noncontact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT). 6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not contain rust inhibitors.

Thank you for your attention.