STRUCTURAL

GREEK

POST AND LINTEL

The major architectural contribution

and predominant method employed

by the ancient Greeks. Post and lintel is a simple architrave where one horizontal beam, or lintel, is supported by two vertical posts. Greek temples in 6th Century BC onwards were built by beams with stone columns. The beams held up the roof and decorated friezes above.
West end of the Parthenon at Athens

ENTABLATURE
Entablature The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the entire building, usually composed of a cornice, frieze, and architrave

The upper band of the entablature is called the cornice, which is generally ornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once have supported the wooden roof at each end of the building. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief.

Made of a series of stone lintels that spanned the space between the columns, and meet each other at a joint directly above the centre of each column.

The structure of the entablature varies with the three classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. In each, the proportions of the subdivisions (architrave, frieze, cornice) are defined by the proportions of the column in the order.

PEDIMENT
The entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The triangular space framed by the cornices is the location of the most significant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the building. It was often decorated with relief sculpture depicting scenes from Greek. From the 6th century BC onwards as fully sculpted figures placed on the corners and ridges of the pediments. They could depict bowls and tripods, griffins, sphinxes, and especially mythical figures and deities.

ROOF

The Greeks roofed their buildings with timber beams covered with overlapping terra cotta or occasionally marble tiles. The roofs were crowned by acroteria, originally in the form of elaborately painted clay disks. There was an opening in the roof which admitted air and light to the central portion of the naos or cell.

Golden Section
Many Greek artists and architects have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratioespecially in the form of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter is the golden ratiobelieving this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing. The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs.

ENTASIS
It is the swelling given to a column in the middle parts of the shaft for the purpose of correcting a disagreeable optical illusion. It is found to give an attenuated appearance to columns formed with straight sides, and to cause their outlines to seem concave instead of straight Most Greek buildings of this golden period use entasis, the device whereby tapering columns are given a slight swelling about a third of the way up to counteract a tendency of the eye to see them as curving inwards from either side.

SCULPTURE
The Greeks essentially formalized architectural sculpture and decoration. In the Classical period, Greek sculptors would break off the shackles of convention and achieve what no-one else had ever before attempted. They created life-size and life-like sculpture which glorified the human. Ancient Greek monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century.

Construction Method
Clamps and dowels were used to fasten the pieces together. Blocks of marble or limestone were carefully quarried and measured and then cut to within a millimetre in order to ensure perfect construction. The tools used by the stone masons were hand tools such as the adze, auger, chisel and mallet. Master stonemasons filled the stone columns and plinths with highly decorative carvings. A crane was used to lift the pieces into position.

STRUCTURAL
ROMAN

CONCRETE

Roman concrete (opus caementicium) was made with a special Roman mortar called caementa created by mixing water, lime, and a special volcanic ash sand (pozzolana), that gave special strength. The invention of concrete revolutionized construction in the Romans. Concrete was used with facing for protection and surface finish. It was also hydraulicit would set up and harden even under water, which made it handy for building things like Roman sewers, cisterns, baths, and even harbours.

WALLS

Defence of cities has been one of the capital problems that civilizations had to solve in order to project the future of their citizens, goods, culture and ways of life. Romans were the first in the technique of improving different kinds of defence, using walls.
External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" whilst interiors in "Opus Incertum"

ROMAN ARCHES
The ancient Romans were the first to effectively harness their power in the construction of bridges, monuments and buildings. The ingenious design of the arch allowed the weight of buildings to be evenly distributed along various supports, preventing massive Roman structures from crumbling under their own weight. Roman engineers improved on arches by flattening their shape to create what is known as a segmental arch and repeating them at various intervals to build stronger supports that could span large gaps when used in bridges and aqueducts.

TRIUMPHAL ARCH
These were erected to emperors or generals in honour of their victories. They consisted either of a single arch or of a central arch with a smaller one on either side. It rest on an impost, and have Corinthian or Composite columns on either side, and were adorned with architectural enrichments, statuary, and bas-reliefs relating to campaigns. An attic or surmounting mass of stonework was placed above, having a dedicatory inscription.

The Arch of Titus, Rome

Arch of Trajan at Ancona

The Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome

The Arch of Constantine

VAULTS
Vaults are used to support a load. It usually works on the principle of compression, transferring vertical stress to the supports. The effect was far reaching and gave freedom in the planning of complex structures, which were easily roofed, the vaults being of any form, and easily constructed on rough centres or temporary supports till the concrete was set.

a. b. c.

The Romans used these types of vaults:

Barrel Vault or Tunnel Vault Groined Vault or Cross Vault Cloister Vault

BARREL VAULT
A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault, is an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance. The curves are typically circular in shape, lending a semi-cylindrical appearance to the total design. Barrel Vaults were used extensively in Roman architecture. They were also used to replace the Cloaca Maxima with a system of underground sewers.

Cloaca Maxima (the main sewer of ancient Rome)

GROIN VAULT
A groin vault or groined vault (also sometimes known as a double barrel vault or cross vault) is produced by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults.. The word "groin" refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults.

Interior of Basilica of Maxentius (also called Basilica of Constantine), Rome

CLOISTER VAULT
Cloister Vault is also product of the intersection of two barrel-vaults but the two barrel vaults rest on the sides of the square which defines the plan.

DOME
A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Domes were used for covering circular structures. Roman domes are found in baths, villas, palaces, and tombs. Oculi are common features.

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

The Roman empire encompassed nearly 1.7 million square miles and included most of southern Europe. To ensure effective administration of this sprawling domain, the Romans built the system of roads. Roman roads were constructed with a combination of dirt, gravel and bricks made from granite or hardened volcanic lava. Roman engineers adhered to strict standards when designing their highways, creating arrowstraight roads that curved to allow for water drainage. The Romans built over 50,000 miles of road by 200 A.D., primarily in the service of military conquest. Highways allowed the Roman legion to travel as far as 25 miles per day, and a complex network of post houses meant that messages and other intelligence could be relayed with astonishing speed. Stone mile markers and signs informed travellers of the distance to their destination, while special complements of soldiers acted as a kind of highway patrol.

Sa architectural styles ata kasma ung tuscan and composite

TUSCAN ORDER
The Tuscan Order has a plain unfluted column and simple entablature . The Tuscan order is seen as similar to the Doric order, and yet in its overall proportions and intercolumniation, it follows the ratios of the Ionic order. This strong order was considered most appropriate in military architecture and in docks and warehouses when they were dignified by architectural treatment. It were used to fortified places, such as city gates, fortresses, castles, treasuries, or where artillery and ammunition are kept, prisons, seaports and other similar structures used in war.

COMPOSITE ORDER
The Composite Order was invented by the Romans, being used principally in the Triumphal Arches. The upper portion of the Ionic capital was combined with the lower part of the Corinthian. In other details the order follows the Corinthian, but with additional ornamentation. The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. The composite order volutes are larger, however, and the composite order also has echinus mouldings with egg-and-dart ornamentation between the volutes. The column of the composite order is ten diameters high.