Dr Samra Hafeez Assistant Professor Dept of Biochemistry

Digestion And Absorption of Carbohydrates

MAJOR CONCEPTS :
To study how the complex CHO in the foodstuff are

broken down into simple sugars in GI Tract

How these simple sugars are absorbed from GI tract

into Portal Blood for assimilation and providing energy

CARBOHYDRATES
Learning Objectives: Understand the different classes of carbohydrates Understand the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates Learn about the function of carbohydrates in the diet, and how they relate to health issues
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WHAT ARE THE CARBOHYDRATES?

Organic compounds that contain

CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN in the ratio of 1 carbon atom and 1 oxygen atom for every 2 hydrogen atoms
Two Main Classes:

SIMPLE (sugars)
COMPLEX (starches and fiber)
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SIMPLE SUGARS
MONOSACCHARIDES Glucose (or Dextrose) Galactose Fructose

SIMPLE SUGARS
DISACCHARIDES Sucrose (glucose+fructose) Lactose (glucose+galactose) Maltose (glucose+glucose)

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
POLYSACCHARIDES Starch - long chains of glucose molecules in straight (AMYLOSE) or branching (AMYLOPECTIN) arrangement

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COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
POLYSACCHARIDES Glycogen animal form of starch (highly branched and composed of multiple glucose molecules)

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COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
FIBER resembles starch, but cannot

be digested TYPES: Cellulose Hemicellulose Pectin Gums and Mucilages Lignans (is fiber, but not a polysaccharide)

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CARBOHYDRATES in the BODY USES OF GLUCOSE

Energy glucose is the primary fuel for most cells in the
body. The brain MUST have glucose!

Sparing body protein if glucose is scarce, the

body will breakdown its own protein.

Preventing ketosis with no carbohydrate, fat

breakdown produces ketone bodies. Can lead to ketosis.

Storage as glycogen liver stores are used to

maintain blood sugar, while muscle stores are used to fuel activity.
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Digestion
Digestion The process of changing

food into simple components which the body can absorb

tract- where digestion & absorption take place intestine->large intestine

Digestive tract or Gastrointestinal

Mouth->esophagus->stomach->small
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Digestion :
A family of a glycosidases that degrade

carbohydrate into their monohexose components catalyzes hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds.

These enzymes are usually specific to

the type of bond to be broken.

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Introduction:

More than 60% carbohydrates.

of

our

foods

are

Starch, glycogen, sucrose, lactose and

cellulose are the chief carbohydrates in our food.

Before intestinal absorption, they are

hydrolyzed to hexose sugars (glucose, galactose and fructose).

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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

In the mouth
the salivary enzyme amylase begins to hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and maltose.

In the stomach
acid continues to hydrolyze starch while fiber delays gastric emptying and provides a feeling of fullness (satiety).
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

In the small intestine

pancreatic amylase among other enzymes (maltase, sucrase, and lactase) hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides and monosaccharide.

In the large intestine

fibers remain and attract water, soften stools and ferment.
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Digestion of carbohydrate by salivary -amylase (ptyalin) in the mouth:

Produced by salivary glands. Its optimum pH is 6.7. It is activated by chloride ions (Cl-). It acts on cooked starch and glycogen breaking 1-4 bonds, converting them into maltose [a disaccharide containing two glucose molecules attached by 1-4 linkage].
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Final carbohydrate digestion by intestinal

ln the stomach: carbohydrate digestion stops temporarily due to the high acidity which inactivates the salivary - amylase.

enzymes:

The final digestive processes occur at the small intestine and include the action of several disaccharidases. These enzymes are secreted through and remain associated with the brush border of the intestinal mucosal cells. Digestion of carbohydrate by the pancreatic - amylase in the small intestine.
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Final carbohydrate digestion by intestinal enzymes:

The disaccharidases include:

1. Lactase (-galactosidase) which hydrolyses lactose into two molecules of glucose and galactose: Lactase Lactose ---------------- Glucose + Galactose 2. Maltase ( -glucosidase), which hydrolyses maltose into two molecules of glucose: Maltase Maltose ------------- Glucose + Glucose 3. Sucrase (-fructofuranosidase), which hydrolyses sucrose into two molecules of glucose and fructose: Sucrase Sucrose -------------- Glucose + Fructose 4. - dextrinase (oligo-1,6 glucosidase or isomaltase) which hydrolyze (1 ,6) linkage of isomaltose. Dextrinase Isomaltose --------- Glucose + Glucose
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Carbohydrate Absorption
Primarily takes place in the small

intestine Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
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Carbohydrate Absorption
For example, galactose and glucose are

transported into the mucosal cells by an active, energy-requiring process that requires a concurrent uptake of sodium ions
The transport protein is the sodium-

dependent glucose co transporter 1 (SGLT1).

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Carbohydrate Absorption
The duodenum and upper jejunum absorb the

bulk of the dietary sugars.

Different sugars have different mechanisms of

absorption.

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Absorption of monosaccharide by intestinal mucosal cellscontd

Fructose uptake requires a sodium-independent

monosaccharide transporter (GLUT-5) for its absorption.

All three monosaccharide are transported from

the intestinal mucosal cell into the portal circulation by yet another transporter, GLUT-2.

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Carbohydrate Absorption
A.

The end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharide: glucose, galactose and fructose.

They are absorbed from the jejunum to portal

veins to the liver

Fructose and Galactose are transformed into

glucose.

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Absorption of Monosaccharide
B.

Two mechanisms are responsible for absorption of monosaccharide:

Active transport (against concentration gradient

i.e. from low to high concentration)

Passive transport (by facilitated diffusion).

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Transport Proteins
. Transport proteins = Integral membrane proteins that transport specific molecules or ions across biological membranes.
Or Carrier Proteins :
Mobile & Specific for Sugars

Sodium and Energy Dependent

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Wilson and Craines hypothesis

C. For active transport to take place, the structure of

sugar should have: 1: Hexose ring. 2. OH group at position 2 on the right side. (Both of which are present in D-glucose and galactose.) 3. A methyl or a substituted methyl group i.e ., one or more carbon atom should be present at carbon 5.

Fructose, which does not contain -OH group to the right

at position 2 is absorbed more slowly than glucose and galactose by passive diffusion (slow process).

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II. Mechanisms of absorption: A. Active transport:

In the cell membrane of the intestinal cells, there is a mobile carrier protein called sodium dependant glucose transporter (SGL T-1)

It transports glucose to inside the cell using energy. The energy is derived from sodium-potassium pump. The transporter has 2 separate sites, one for sodium and the other for glucose. It transports them from the intestinal lumen across cell membrane to the cytoplasm. Both glucose and sodium are released into the cytoplasm allowing the carrier to return for more transport of glucose and sodium. 35

Mechanisms of absorption:
b)

The sodium is transported from high to low concentration (with concentration gradient) and at the same time causes the carrier to transport glucose against its concentration gradient. The Na+ is expelled outside the cell by sodium pump. Which needs ATP as a source of energy. The reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called "Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)". Active transport is much more faster than passive transport. Is an example of Co-Transport system
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Mechanisms of absorption:
c) Insulin increases the number of glucose

transporters in tissues containing insulin receptors e.g. muscles and adipose tissue.
2. Inhibitors of

active transport:

a) Ouabin (cardiac glycoside): Inhibits adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) necessary for hydrolysis of ATP that produces energy of sodium pump.
b) Phlorhizin; Inhibits the binding of sodium in

the carrier protein.

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Summary of Types & Functions of most important glucose transporters

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B. Passive Transport (facilitated diffusion ):

Mechanism involved :
PING PONG STATE

Rate determining Factors for transport are : Concentration gradient

Amount of carrier proteins Rapidity of solute-carrier interaction Rapidity of conversion of ping pong state
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. Passive Transport (facilitated diffusion ):

Sugars pass with concentration gradient i.e. from

high to low concentration.

Needs no energy. It occurs by means of a sodium

independent facilitative transporter (GLUT -5).

Fructose and Pentoses are absorbed by this

mechanism.
Glucose and galactose can also use the same

transporter favorable.

if

the

concentration

gradient

is
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Factors affecting Rate of Absorption:

State of Mucous Membrane and Length of time of

contact Hormones : Thyroid hormones (increases ) Adrenal cortical hormone (decreases ) Anterior Pituitary (via thyroids ) Insulin ( no direct effect ) Vitamins B-complex ( thiamine , Pyridoxine and pantothenic acid ) Inherited Enzyme Deficiencies (sucrase & Lactase)
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Small intestine

Portal for transport of virtually all nutrients Water and electrolyte balance Enzymes associated with intestinal surface membranes i. Sucrase ii. a dextrinase iii.Glucoamylase (maltase) iv.Lactase v. peptidases
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Carbohydrate absorption
Hexose Transporters

apical

basolateral
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Carbohydrate absorption
Monosaccharide are still too large for passive diffusion across

brush border membrane. We use facilitated diffusion to absorb these molecules.

Glucose and galactose use a sodium-glucose symport (SGLUT1)

while fructose uses the glut5

We must transport Na out of the cell to maintain proper

electrochemical gradient (sodium potassium pump)

Water will also follow sodium into enterocyte. This is critical to

maintain proper water balance.

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Cellular Uptake of Glucose

1.) Gradient usually exists ECF>ICF (HK keeps ICF low)
80-110 mg/dl
< 45 mg/dl > 150-200 mg/dl > 300-600 mg/dl

euglycemia hypoglycemia after CHO meal (i.e, below Tmax) uncontrolled diabetes

2.) Glucose is polar, therefore is hydrophilic Facilitated diffusion occurs via 5 glucose transporters GLUT 1 GLUT 5
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Cellular Uptake of Glucose

3.) Unregulated glucose uptake
Based on concentration gradient

GLUT 1, 2, 3 & 5 (liver, neurons, RBC, kidney) 4.) Regulated glucose uptake Insulin on GLUT 4 (muscle, adipose)

5.) Insulin -- Pancreas cells

a & Chains 3 disulfide bonds Insulin receptor -- membrane 4 subunits GLUT 4 translocation from intracellular storage sites to membrane glucose uptake 10-20x within 5 min.

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Carbohydrate Metabolism/ Utilization -Tissue Specificity

Muscle cardiac and skeletal Oxidize glucose/produce and store glycogen (fed)
Breakdown glycogen (fasted state) Shift to other fuels in fasting state (fatty acids)

Adipose and liver Glucose acetyl CoA Glucose to glycerol for triglyceride synthesis Liver releases glucose for other tissues

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Carbohydrate Metabolism/ UtilizationTissue Specificity

Nervous system Always use glucose except during extreme fasts
Reproductive tract/mammary
Glucose required by fetus Lactose major milk carbohydrate

Red blood cells

No mitochondria Oxidize glucose to lactate Lactate returned to liver for Gluconeogenesis
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Glucose Transport Proteins

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Insulin
A chain 21AA
S S

B chain 30AA
S

Insulin Receptor
S S

Fully active Tyrosine Kinase now can phosphorylate (activate/deactivate) intracellular enzymes Activates PDE cAMP activates PP-1 / dephosphorylates GS and PKA EPI inhibits insulin receptor and release
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A Subunits

B Subunits Tyrosine Kinase (Autophosphorylate)

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