Agenda

1. Example of Proof by Mathematical

Induction
2. Example of proof of a proposition which
includes If and only if
3. Sets
4. Series
5. Relations
Proof by Mathematical Induction
Example 1
Q: Use induction to show that 5
n
1 is
divisible by 4 for n = 1, 2,

A: Basis Step
If n = 1, 5
n
- 1 = 5
1
1
= 5 1
= 4
4 is divisible by 4, hence true for n = 1

Proof by Mathematical Induction
Example 1( contd.)
Inductive Step
Assume that for n = k, 5
k
1 is divisible by 4. (i.e. Proposition
is true for n = k)

It is now necessary to show that for n=k+1,
5
k+1
1 is divisible by 4.

To show that 5
k+1
1 is divisible by 4, we need to relate the case
where n = (k+1) to the case where n = k.

5
k+1
1 = (5)5
k
1
= (4 + 1)5
k
1
= (4)5
k
+ (1)5
k
1
= (4)5
k
+ (5
k
1)

Since 4(5
k
) by 4 and 5
k
1 is divisible is also divisible by 4 then
CONCLUSION: 5
k+1
1 is divisible by 4
(5
k
1)
Proof by Mathematical Induction
Example 2
Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n
2

Basis Step
For n = 1, LHS : 1
RHS : 1
2
= 1
Therefore LHS RHS, hence summation is equal n
2

for n = 1.

Inductive Step
Assume true for n = k, i.e.
1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k-1) = k
2


Proof by Mathematical Induction
Example 2 contd.
Prove true for n = k + 1, i.e.
Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k-1)+ (2(k+1) 1)
= (k +1)
2
LHS:
1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k-1) + (2(k+1) 1)
k
2
+ (2(k+1) 1)
k
2
+ 2k + 2 1
k
2
+ 2k + 1
(k + 1)
2
RHS.
CONCLUSION: 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n
2


If and only if
P, if, and only if Q
is equivalent to
if P, then Q AND if Q, then P.

To prove an if and only if theorem you must
prove two implications.
Eg. Prove If a is an integer, then a is not evenly
divisible by 3 if and only if, a
2
- 1 is evenly divisible by 3.
Example: If and only if
IF
Implication 1: a is not evenly divisible by 3
if a
2
- 1 is evenly divisible by 3.
Assume a
2
1 is evenly divisibly by 3 and as a result,
show that a is not evenly divisible by 3.

a
2
1 = (a + 1)(a - 1)
3 must evenly divide either (a 1) or (a + 1). If either is
true, then 3 cannot evenly divide a.

e.g. if (a 1) = 9, then a = 10, 10 is not a mulitple of 3
or, if (a + 1) = 9 then a = 8, 8 is not a multiple of 3
Example: If and only if (contd.)
ONLY IF
Impl. 2: a is not evenly divisible by 3 only if a
2
- 1 is evenly divisible by 3.
This means If a is not evenly divisible by 3, then a
2
1 is evenly
divisibly by 3
Using the division algorithm which states that if n and m are integers,
then there are two other integers q and r, where 0<= r < m, and such
that n = qm + r e.g. n = 103, m = 15 then 103 = 6(15) + 13
Hence,
a = 3q + r, where r = 0, 1, 2.
Since a is not divisible by 3, then r 0.
If r = 1, then a = 3q + 1 => a 1 = 3q. => (a - 1) is divisible by 3.
If a 1 is divisible by 3 then a
2
1 = (a 1)(a + 1) is also divisible by
3.
R. Johnsonbaugh,
Discrete Mathematics
5
th
edition, 2001
Chapter 2
The Language of Mathematics
2.1 Sets
Set = a collection of distinct unordered
objects
Members of a set are called elements
How to determine a set
Listing:
Example: A = {1,3,5,7}
Description
Example: B = {x | x = 2k + 1, 0 < k < 3}
Such that
Finite and infinite sets
Finite sets
Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {x | x is an integer, 1 < x < 4}

Infinite sets
Examples:
Z = {integers} = {, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,}
S={x | x is a real number and 1 < x < 4} = [0, 4]

Some important sets

The empty set C has no elements.
Also called null set or void set.
Universal set: the set of all elements about
which we make assertions.
Examples:
U = {all natural numbers}
U = {all real numbers}
U = {x| x is a natural number and 1< x<10}


Cardinality
Cardinality of a set A (in symbols |A|) is the
number of elements in A
Examples:
If A = {1, 2, 3} then |A| = 3
If B = {x | x is a natural number and 1< x< 9}
then |B| = 9
Infinite cardinality
Countable (e.g., natural numbers, integers)
Uncountable (e.g., real numbers)
Subsets
X is a subset of Y if every element of
X is also contained in Y
(in symbols X _ Y)
Equality: X = Y if X _ Y and Y _ X
Every set is a subset of itself
Observation: C is a subset of every
set
X is a proper subset of Y if X _ Y but
Y . X

Power set
The power set of X is the set of all subsets of X,
in symbols P(X),
i.e. P(X)= {A | A _ X}
Example: if X = {1, 2, 3},
then P(X) = {C, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}

Theorem 2.1.4: If |X| = n, then |P(X)| = 2
n
.

See Proof of theorem using mathematical induction
on page 57 of text.

Set operations:
Union and Intersection
Given two sets X and Y
The union of X and Y is defined as the set
X Y = { x | x e X or x e Y}

The intersection of X and Y is defined as the
set
X Y = { x | x e X and x e Y}
Two sets X and Y are disjoint if X Y = C

A collection of sets S is said to be pairwise disjoint if
whenever X and Y are distinct sets in s, X and Y are
disjoint.
Complement and Difference
The difference of two sets
X Y = { x | x e X and x e Y}
The difference is also called the relative complement
of Y in X
Symmetric difference
X Y = (X Y) (Y X)
The complement of a set A contained in a
universal set U is the set A
c
= U A
In symbols A
c
= U - A

Example
A = {n N: n s 11}
B = { n N: n is even and n s 20}
A B = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,
11,12,14,16, 18,20}
A B = { 2,4,6,8,10}
A\B (or A-B) = { 1,3,5,7,9,11}
B\A = {12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
A B or (AB) = ?
Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram provides a graphic view of
sets
Set union, intersection, difference,
symmetric difference and complements can
be identified


Properties of set operations (1)
Theorem 2.1.10: Let U be a universal set, and
A, B and C subsets of U. The following
properties hold:
a) Associativity: (A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)
b) Commutativity: A B = B A
A B = B A

Properties of set operations (2)
c) Distributive laws:
A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
d) Identity laws:
AU=A AC = A
e) Complement laws:
AA
c
= U AA
c
= C


Properties of set operations (3)
f) Idempotent laws:
AA = A AA = A
g) Bound laws:
AU = U AC = C
h) Absorption laws:
A(AB) = A A(AB) = A
Properties of set operations (4)
i) Involution law: (A
c
)
c
= A

j) 0/1 laws: C
c
= U U
c
= C
k) De Morgans laws for sets:
(AB)
c
= A
c
B
c

(AB)
c
= A
c
B
c

Partition of a set
A partition divides a set into non-
overlapping subsets.
A collection S of nonempty subsets of X is
said to be a partition of the set X if every
element in X belongs to exactly one
member of S.
If S is a partition of X, S is pairwise
disjoint and S = X

Example
X = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

S = { {1,2}, {3}, {4,5}}
S is a partition of X.

Determine other possible partitions of the
set X.
Cartesian Product & Ordered Pairs
An ordered pair of elements is written in
the form (a, b) which is distinct from (b,
a) unless a = b
The Cartesian product of two sets, X
and Y is denoted by
X x Y
The Cartesian product of two sets, X and
Y, represents the set of all the ordered
pairs (x,y) where x X and y Y.

Example
X = { 1, 2}
Y = { a, b}

X x Y = {(1,a),(1,b),(2,a), (2,b)}
Y x X = { (a, 1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2)}
Note:
X x Y = Y x X
| X x Y | = |X| .|Y|

Determine:
X x X =
Y x Y =
Ordered lists
The ordered list does not have to be
restricted to two elements, such as in an
ordered pair.
An n-tuple, written (a
1,
a
2,
a
3
a
n
) takes
order into account.
Cartesian product of sets X
1,
X
2,
X
3
X
n
is
defined to be the set of all n-tuples (x
1,
x
2,
x
3
x
n
) where x
i
e X
i
for i = 1,2,..n


X
1
x X
2
x

X
3
x

X
n
2.2 Sequences and strings
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, usually defined
according to a formula: s
n
= a function of n = 1, 2, 3,...
If s is a sequence {s
n
| n = 1, 2, 3,},
s
1
denotes the first element,
s
2
the second element,
s
n
the nth element
{n} is called the indexing set of the sequence. Usually the
indexing set is N (natural numbers) or an infinite subset of
N.
Examples of sequences
Examples:
1. Let s = {s
n
} be the sequence defined by
s
n
= 1/n , for n = 1, 2, 3,
The first few elements of the sequence are: 1, , 1/3, ,
1/5,1/6,
2. Let s = {s
n
} be the sequence defined by
s
n
= n
2
+ 1, for n = 1, 2, 3,
The first few elements of s are: 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50,

Increasing and decreasing
A sequence s = {s
n
} is said to be
increasing if s
n
< s
n+1

decreasing is s
n
> s
n+1
,
for every n = 1, 2, 3,
Examples:
S
n
= 4 2n, n = 1, 2, 3, is decreasing:
2, 0, -2, -4, -6,

S
n
= 2n -1, n = 1, 2, 3, is increasing:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
Subsequences
A subsequence of a sequence s = {s
n
}
is a sequence t = {t
n
} that consists
of certain elements of s retained in
the original order they had in s
Example: let s = {s
n
= n | n = 1, 2,
3,}
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Let t = {t
n
= 2n | n = 1, 2, 3,}
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,
t is a subsequence of s


Sigma notation

If {a
n
} is a sequence, then the sum

m
E a
k
= a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
m
k

= 1
This is called the sigma notation,
where the Greek letter E indicates a
sum of terms from the sequence


Pi notation

If {a
n
} is a sequence, then the product

m
H a
k
= a
1
a
2
a
m
k=1

This is called the pi notation, where the
Greek letter H indicates a product of
terms of the sequence
Arithmetic Progression
Arithmetic progression or sequence is a sequence
(finite or infinite list) of real numbers for which each
term is the previous term plus a constant (called the
common difference).
For example, starting with 1 and using a common
difference of 4 we get the finite arithmetic sequence: 1,
5, 9, 13, 17, 21;
Associated terminology
a first term
d common difference
a
n
nth term
a
n
= a + (n 1)*d
Geometric Progression
A Geometric Progression or sequence is a sequence
(finite or infinite) of real numbers for which each term is
the previous term multiplied by a constant (called the
common ratio).
For example, starting with 3 and using a common ratio of
2 we get the finite geometric sequence: 3, 6, 12, 24, 48;
and also the infinite sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, ..., 3.2n ...
In general, the terms of a geometric sequence have the
form
a first term, r common ration, a
n
nth term
a
n
= a*r
n-1
(n=1,2,...) for fixed numbers a and r.