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Names (in order of appearance) Anish Majumder Sk. Md. Ashif Roll No. 37 03
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OUTLINE
Thermocouples
overview, reference junction, proper connections, types, special limits of error wire, time constants, sheathing, potential problems, DAQ setup
RTDs
overview, bridges, calibration, accuracy, response time, potential problems
THERMOCOUPLES
THERMOCOUPLES
Seebeck Effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one end is heated, current will flow.
If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit voltage across the wires.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types. For small DTs, the relationship with temperature is linear For larger DTs, non-linearities may occur.
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MEASURING THE THERMOCOUPLE VOLTAGE If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you will have problems.
You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be proportional to the difference between J1 and J2 (and hence T1 and T2). Note that this is Type T thermocouple.
A solution is to put J2 in an icebath; then you know T2, and your output voltage will be proportional to T1-T2.
If the two terminals arent at the same temperature, this also creates an error.
ISOTHERMAL BLOCK
The block is an electrical insulator but good heat conductor. This way the voltages for J3 and J4 cancel out. Thermocouple data acquisition set-ups include these isothermal blocks.
If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal block temperature is our reference temperature
SOFTWARE COMPENSATION
How can we find the temperature of the block? Use a thermistor or RTD.
Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated with that temperature can be subtracted off. Then why use thermocouples at all?
Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and rugged, and operate over a wider temperature range.
Most data acquisition systems have software compensation built in. for example, to use Labview, youll need to know if you have a thermistor or RTD.
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HARDWARE COMPENSATION
With hardware compensation, the temperature of the isothermal block again is measured, and then a battery is used to cancel out the voltage of the reference junction. This is also called an electronic ice point reference. With this reference, you can use a normal voltmeter instead of a thermocouple reader. You need a separate ice-point reference for every type of thermocouple.
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Soldering, silver-soldering, butt or spot or beaded gas welding, crimping, and twisting are all OK. The third metal introduced doesnt effect results as long as the temperature everywhere in the bead is the same. Welding should be done carefully so as to not degrade the metals. If you consistently will need a lot of thermocouples, you can buy a thermocouple welder; you stick the two ends into a hole, hit a button, and the welding is done.
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THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
If you do your own calibration, you can usually improve on the listed uncertainties.
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SHEATHING, CONT.
From J. Nicholas & D. White, 2001, Traceable Temperatures: An Introduction to Temperature Measurement and Calibration, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons.
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POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
Poor bead construction
Weld changed material characteristics because the weld temperature was too high
Decalibration
If thermocouples are used for very high or cold temperatures, wire properties can change due to diffusion of insulation or atmosphere particles into the wire, cold-working, or annealing. Inhomogeneities in the wire: These are especially bad in areas with large temperature gradients; especially common in iron. Metallic sleeving can help reduce their effect on the final temperature reading.
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Galvanic Action
The dyes in some insulations form an electrolyte in the water. This creates a galvanic action with a resulting emf potentially many times that of the thermocouple. Use an appropriate shield for a wet environment. T Type thermocouples have less of a problem with this.
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Noise
Several types of circuit set-ups help reduce line-related noise. You can set your data acquisition system up with a filter, too. Small-diameter wires have more of a problem with noise.
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T-type thermocouples have more of a problem with this than most other types since one of the leads is made of copper which has a high thermal conductivity.
Inaccurate ice-point
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Pass a hair-dryer over the wire. The temperature reading should only change when you pass it over the bead.
Mount a thermocouple only on a surface that is not electrically live (watch for this when measuring temperatures of electronics).
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Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range and has excellent stability. Nickel or nickel alloys are used as well, but they arent as accurate.
In several common configurations, the platinum wire is exposed directly to air (called a birdcage element), wound around a bobbin and then sealed in molten glass, or threaded through a ceramic cylinder. Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited onto a ceramic substrate. The substrate is then etched with a laser. These RTDs are very small but arent as stable (and hence not quite accurate). RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than thermocouples.
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RTD GEOMETRY
Sheathing: stainless steel or Inconel, glass, alumina, quartz Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are best below 250C. At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to prevent contamination.
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RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Several different bridge circuits are used to determine the resistance. Bridge circuits help improve the accuracy of the measurements significantly. Bridge output voltage is a function of the RTD resistance.
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RESISTANCE/TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Published equations relating bridge voltage to temperature can be used. For very accurate results, own calibration can be done easily.
Several electronic calibrators are available. The most accurate calibration that you can do easily yourself is to use a constant temperature bath and NISTtraceable thermometers. You then can make your own calibration curve correlating temperature and voltage.
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Response time is longer than thermocouples; for a sheath, response time can easily be 10 s.
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POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
RTDs are more fragile than thermocouples.
An external current must be supplied to the RTD. This current can heat the RTD, altering the results. For situations with high heat transfer coefficients, this error is small since the heat is dissipated to air. For small diameter thermocouples and still air this error is the largest. Use the largest RTD possible and smallest external current possible to minimize this error. Be careful about the way you set up your measurement device. Attaching it can change the voltage.
When the platinum is connected to copper connectors, a voltage difference will occur (as in thermocouples). This voltage must be subtracted off.
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THERMISTORS
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THERMISTORS
Thermistors also measure the change in resistance with temperature. Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also very fast. Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very small temperature differences must be detected.
THERMISTOR NON-LINEARITY
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COMPARISONS
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*from Omega
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INFRARED THERMOMETRY
Infrared thermometers measure the amount of radiation emitted by an object. Peak magnitude is often in the infrared region. Surface emissivity must be known. This can add a lot of error.
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FIELD OF VIEW
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EMISSIVITY
To find out temperature, surface emissivity must be known. You can look up emissivities, but its not easy to get an accurate number, esp. if surface condition is uncertain (for example, degree of oxidation). Highly reflective surfaces introduce a lot of error. Narrow-band spectral filtering results in a more accurate emissivity value.
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2.
3. 4. 5.
SPECTRAL EFFECTS
Use a filter to eliminate longer-wavelength atmospheric radiation (since your surface will often have a much higher temperature than the atmosphere). If you know the range of temperatures that youll be measuring, you can filter out both smaller and larger wavelength radiation. Filtering out small wavelengths eliminates the effects of flames or other hot spots. If youre measuring through glass-type surfaces, make sure that the glass is transparent for the wavelengths you care about. Otherwise the temperature you read will be a sort of average of your desired surface and glass temperatures.
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Liquid crystals They change color with temperature. If the calibration is known, color can be determined very accurately using a digital camera and appropriate image analysis software. This is used in a fair amount for research.
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CONTROLLERS
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TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS
Consider the following when choosing a controller
Type of temperature sensor (thermocouples and RTDs are common) Number and type of outputs required (for example, turn on a heater, turn off a cooling system, sound an alarm) Type of control algorithm (on/off, proportional, PID)
On/off controllers
These are the simplest controllers. On above a certain set point, and off below a certain set point On/off differential used to prevent continuous cycling on and off. This type of controller cant be used for precise temperature control. Often used for systems with a large thermal mass (where temperatures take a long time to change) and for alarms.
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PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLERS
Proportional controllers
Power can be varied. For example, in a heating unit the average power supplied will decrease the closer one gets to the set point. Power is often varied by turning the controller on and off very quickly rather than using a VFD Some proportional controllers use proportional analog outputs where the output level is varied rather than turning the controller on and off.
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PID
Combines proportional with integral and derivative control. With proportional control, the temperature usually stabilizes a certain amount above or below the set point. This difference is called offset.
With integral and derivative control, this offset is compensated for so that you end up at the set point. This provides very accurate temperature control, even for systems where the temp. is changing rapidly.
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Driver
Load / Motor
Monitoring System
Sensor
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INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
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INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Steel industry
Thermocouples or RTDs are used to measure temperatures of the furnace Infrared pyrometers and infrared cameras are used to measure the temperature of the metal itself
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INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Power industry
Thermocouples or RTDs are used to monitor the furnace and boiler temperatures
Infrared pyrometers are used to measure temperatures in various sections of the turbines, especially blades
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ENCLOSURE RATINGS
Type 1 general purpose indoor enclosure to prevent accidental contact
Type 2 indoor use, provides limited protection from dirt and dripping water
Type 3 outdoor use to protect against wind-blown dust, sleet, rain, but no ice formation Type 3R outdoor use to protect against falling rain but no ice formation Type 4 add splashing or hose-directed water to 3 Type 4x add corrosion Type 6 add occasional submersion to 4x etc.
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THANK YOU!