Professional Documents
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Breastfeeding Assessment
Before being able to address breastfeeding problems, the physician needs to assess breastfeeding by observing the infant feeding at the breast. See the Basic Breastfeeding Assessment presentation
The following presentation discusses how to further assess for a particular problem and administer treatment to the breastfeeding dyad.
Objectives
At the end of this presentation the learner will be able to discuss:
Assessment of ineffective breastfeeding due to causes associated with the newborn oral cavity, breast anatomy, disorganized suckle, ankyloglossia, and milk transfer Assessment of ineffective breastfeeding due to less common causes including disorganized suckle and ankyloglossia Monitoring of hyperbilirubinemia and jaundice Assessment of dehydration in context of poor feeding and/or low milk supply Diagnosis and management of the delay or failure of lactogenesis II Galactogogue use Evaluation for blocked nipples, engorgement, and milk oversupply Diagnosis and treatment of mastitis, breast abscess, and candidal breast infections
Assessment of Breasts
Breasts should be assessed during a prenatal visit to prepare the mother for any issues that may arise due to breast anatomy Rule out uncommon breast abnormalities Breast enlargement/reduction surgery
Reference 19, 27
Primary Hypoplasia:
- insufficient mammary glandular tissue - nulliparous state (adopted infant) - unilateral or bilateral breast anomalies
Secondary Displasia:
s/p radiation Rx s/p breast surgery s/p severe mastitis/abscess
Reference 38
Disorganized Suckle
Term babies have because: Coordination problems Hypotonia Hypertonia Preterm babies may have: Neurologic immaturity Disorganized sucking excessive external stimulation Weaker muscles in mouth and tongue
Reliability of Assessment
Hazelbaker Tool in research
Suggest using first 3 function items only Clinical agreement high for frenulotomy
Reference 5
Frenulotomy Studies
Study using well designed enrollment
Reference 5,7,23
Reference 2,3
Reference 3, 17, 27
Reference 15, 27
Reference 16, 27
Close follow up breastfeeding dyads required Daily weight evaluation Careful breastfeeding assessment
Reference 16
Reference 32
Lactogenesis II
Lactogenesis I : Initiation of milk production which occurs in second trimester of pregnancy Lactogenesis II: Postpartum initiation of high volume milk production which occurs as transition from low volume colostrum Usually at 3040 hours postpartum Subjective feeling of breast fullness Day five term infant receive 500 to 750 cc of milk compared to < 100 cc/day prior to lactogenesis II If lactogenesis II has not occurred by postpartum day 5, then delay or failure is present
Reference 33, 42
Less common etiologies secondary to maternal disease Maternal obesity Maternal diabetes or hypertension-etiology unknown
Reference 24
Retained placenta
Hypothyroidism Theca lutein ovarian cysts
Reference 24, 33
Galactagogues
Used to increase breast milk supply Need to attempt to determine the etiology of low milk supply prior to initiation Ensure proper breastfeeding technique prior to use Only use galactogogues with adequate milk removal by nursing or electrical pumping or milk stasis will occur Consider need to evaluate for medical co morbidities e.g., hypothroidism, retained placental fragments, theca lutein ovarian cysts
Reference 41
Galactagogues
Metoclopramide most commonly used
Domperidone not approved in USA. Similar to metoclopramide but less side effects as little crosses blood brain barrier Fenugreek and other herbal medicines no scientific data except anecdotal reports
Metoclopramide
Benefit shown in small placebo controlled crossover study with increase of 50 cc per feed with dose of at least 30 mg per day Effect is to increase prolactin level Side effects: gastrointestinal, anxiety, sedation, and rare dystonic reactions No documented neonatal reactions Short term: 13 weeks is common. No evidence supporting long-term use. Usually wean after 1014 days
Reference 9, 25
Reference 43
Plugged Ducts
Tender lump Predisposing factors Positions that dont empty breast Underwire bras Predispose to mastitis with possible continuum from engorgement to blocked ducts to inflammatory mastitis to bacterial mastitis Treatment Ensure complete drainage Massage Warm packs Position changes
Reference 1
Mastitis
Infection of the breast usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus Risk factors: plugged ducts, untreated engorgement, cracked nipples, missed feedings, excessive fatigue, decreased resistance to infection
Reference 8, 44
Mastitis Treatment
DO NOT stop breastfeeding on the affected side, empty the breast If mild, symptoms occur for less than 24 hours and may attempt to resolve with frequent nursing or pumping and supportive measures including bed rest, fluids, analgesics Antibiotic options include dicloxicillin 500 mg po qid; cephalexin 500 mg po qid, or clindamycin 300 mg po qid for 10 to 14 days Observe carefully for signs of abscess formation
Reference 1, 20, 39
Breast Abscess
~3% of mastitis cases develop into an abscess
Alternative needle aspiration every other day until pus no longer accumulates. Recommended as first line
Culture fluid from abscess
Reference 4
Most seem to resolve even when given antibiotic that community acquired MRSA is resistant to
Draining breast by manual pumping and/or breastfeeding for mastitis or incision and drainage of abscess may be most important part of treatment
Reference 38
Reference 16, 21
Reference 10, 45
References
1. Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee. ABM clinical protocol #4: mastitis. Revision, May 2008. Breastfeed Med. 2008;3(3):177-180. 2. Alpay F, Sarici SU, Tosuncuk HD, Serdar MA, Inanc N, Gokcay E. The value of first-day bilirubin measurement in predicting the development of significant hyperbilirubinemia in healthy term newborns. Pediatrics. 2000;106(2): e16. 3. American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004;114(1):297-316. 4. Amir LH, Forster DA, Lumley J, McLachlan H. A descriptive study of mastitis in Australian breastfeeding women: incidence and determinants. BMC Public Health. 2007;7:62. 5. Amir LH, James JP, Donath SM. Reliability of the hazelbaker assessment tool for lingual frenulum function. Int Breastfeed J. 2006;1(1):3. 6. Andrews JI, Fleener DK, Messer SA, Hansen WF, Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. The yeast connection: is Candida linked to breastfeeding associated pain? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(4):424.e1-e4. 7. Ballard JL, Auer CE, Khoury JC. Ankyloglossia: assessment, incidence, and effect of frenuloplasty on the breastfeeding dyad. Pediatrics. 2002;110(5):e63. 8. Barbosa-Cesnik C, Schwartz K, Foxman B. Lactation mastitis. JAMA. 2003;289(13):1609-1612. 9. Betzold CM. Galactagogues. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2004;49(2):151-154. 10. Betzold CM. An update on the recognition and management of lactational breast inflammation. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2007;52(6):595-605. 11. Betzold CM, Hoover KL, Snyder CL. Delayed lactogenesis II: a comparison of four cases. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2004;49(2):132-137. 12. Bhutani VK, Johnson L. Kernicterus in late preterm infants cared for as term healthy infants. Semin Perinatol. 2006;30(2):89-97. 13. Bhutani VK, Johnson L, Sivieri EM. Predictive ability of a predischarge hour-specific serum bilirubin for subsequent significant hyperbilirubinemia in healthy term and near-term newborns. Pediatrics. 1999;103(1):6-14. 14. Bishop J. Is domperidone safe for breastfeeding mothers? J Midwifery Womens Health. 2004;49(5):461. 15. Cadwell K. Maternal and Infant Assessment for Breastfeeding and Human Lactation: A Guide for the Practitioner, 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers; 2006.
References
16. Caglar MK, Ozer I, Altugan FS. Risk factors for excess weight loss and hypernatremia in exclusively breast-fed infants. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2006;39(4):539-544. 17. Chou SC, Palmer RH, Ezhuthachan S, et al. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in newborns: measuring performance by using a benchmarking model. Pediatrics. 2003;112(6 Pt 1):1264-1273. 18. da Silva OP, Knoppert DC, Angelini MM, Forret PA. Effect of domperidone on milk production in mothers of premature newborns: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CMAJ. 2001;164(1):17-21. 19. Dancey A, Khan M, Dawson J, Peart F. Gigantomastia--a classification and review of the literature. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2008;61(5):493-502. 20. Foxman B, D'Arcy H, Gillespie B, Bobo JK, Schwartz K. Lactation mastitis: occurrence and medical management among 946 breastfeeding women in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(2):103-114. 21. Francis-Morrill J, Heinig MJ, Pappagianis D, Dewey KG. Diagnostic value of signs and symptoms of mammary candidosis among lactating women. J Hum Lact. Aug 2004;20(3):288-299. 22. Gabay MP. Galactogogues: medications that induce lactation. J Hum Lact. 2002;18(3):274-279. 23. Geddes DT, Langton DB, Gollow I, Jacobs LA, Hartmann PE, Simmer K. Frenulotomy for breastfeeding infants with ankyloglossia: effect on milk removal and sucking mechanism as imaged by ultrasound. Pediatrics. 2008;122(1):e188e194. 24. Hurst NM. Recognizing and treating delayed or failed lactogenesis II. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2007;52(6):588-594. 25. Kauppila A, Arvela P, Koivisto M, Kiniven S, Ylikorkala O, Pelkonen O. Metoclopramide and breast feeding: transfer into milk and the newborn. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1983;25(6):819-823. 26. Kriebs JM. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in the obstetric setting. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2008;53(3):247-250. 27. Lawrence RA, Lawrence RM. Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby, Inc.; 2005:46, 436-437, 538-540, 607. 28. Lawrence RA. Mastitis while breastfeeding: old theories and new evidence. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(2):115-116. 29. Macdonald, PD, Ross, SR, Grant, L, Young, D. Neonatal weight loss in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88(6):F472F476 30. Moazzez A, Kelso RL, Towfigh S, Sohn H, Berne TV, Mason RJ. Breast abscess bacteriologic features in the era of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemics. Arch Surg. 2007;142(9):881-884.
References
31. Mohrbacher N, Stock J. The Breastfeeding Answer Book. Rev. ed. Schaumburg, IL: La Leche League International; 1997. 32. Morton J. Salty milk-- when to worry. West J Med. 1995;163(5):164:488-489. 33. Neifert MR. Prevention of breastfeeding tragedies. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48(2):273-297. 34. Neville MC, Morton J. Physiology and endocrine changes underlying human lactogenesis II. J Nutr. 2001;131(11):3005S-3008S. 35. Neville MC, Morton J, Umemura S. Lactogenesis. The transition from pregnancy to lactation. Pediatr Clin North Am. Feb 2001;48(1):35-52. 36. Reddy P, Qi C, Zembower T, Noskin GA, Bolon M. Postpartum mastitis and community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(2):298-301. 37. Scanlon KS, Alexander MP, Serdula MK, Davis MK, Bowman BA. Assessment of infant feeding: the validity of measuring milk intake. Nutr Rev. 2002; 60(8):235-251 38. Schanler RJ, Dooley S. Breastfeeding Handbook for Physicians. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2006. 39. Spencer JP. Management of mastitis in breastfeeding women. Am Fam Physician. 2008;78(6):727-731. 40. Stafford I, Hernandez J, Laibl V, Sheffield J, Roberts S, Wendel G, Jr. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among patients with puerperal mastitis requiring hospitalization. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;112(3):533-537. 41. The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine. Protocol #9: Use of Galactogogues in Initiating or Augmenting Maternal Milk Supply. 2004. http://www.bfmed.org/ace-files/protocol/prot9galactogoguesEnglish.pdf. Accessed October 13, 2008. 42. Unal S, Arhan E, Kara N, Uncu N, Aliefendioglu D. Breast-feeding-associated hypernatremia: retrospective analysis of 169 term newborns. Pediatr Int. 2008;50(1):29-34. 43. van Veldhuizen-Staas CG. Overabundant milk supply: an alternative way to intervene by full drainage and block feeding. Int Breastfeed J. 2007;2:11. 44. Vogel, A, Hutchinson, B, Mitchell, E, Mastitis in the first year postpartum. Birth. 1999;26(4)218-225. 45. Wiener S. Diagnosis and management of Candida of the nipple and breast. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2006;51(2):125-128. 46. Wilson-Clay B. Case report of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) mastitis with abscess formation in a breastfeeding woman. J Hum Lact. 2008;24(3):326-329.