Biostatistics

Measures of Central Tendency

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Central Tendency

Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency

Central Tendency Definition: The most common value (for nominal variables) or the value around which cases tend to cluster (for ordinal and interval-ratio variables) Central Tendency Simplified Definition: A number that represents what is typical, average, or in the middle

Measures of Central Tendency

Mode Median Mean

The one that is to use depends on the situation

Mode

Definition: The most frequently occurring value of a variable

Levels of Measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval-ratio

Comment: The mode is a value, not a frequency!

Mode in a Frequency Distribution

Mode is the value with the largest frequency or percentage

Colour of eyes Brown Black Grey Frequency (f) Percentage (%) 247 145 37 50.2% 29.5% 7.5%
Mode = O

Blue
Total

63
492

12.8%
100.0%

Mode in a Bar Graph

The mode is the value with the tallest bar

300 200 100 0 brown black grey AB

Mode = brown

Mode in a Pie Chart

The mode is the value with the largest slice

brown black grey blue

Mode = brown

Mode in a Histogram

The mode is the value with the tallest bar

Brown

Black

Blue Grey

Colour

Mode = 0

Mode: Potential Problems

Problem 1: Mode might not fall near the center of the distribution for an interval-ratio variable

The mode is here

Wed like the mode to be here

Mode: Potential Problems

Problem 2: There might be more than one mode

Bimodal:

Two modes
Frequency Percentage (f) (%) 155 121 31.5% 24.6%
Two Modes: brown and blue

Body Modification

Brown Grey

Blue
Black Total

61
155 492

12.4%
31.5% 100.0%
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Median

Definition: The middle number in the distribution of a variable when its values are placed in order Levels of Measurement
Ordinal Interval-ratio

Comment: The median divides the distribution of a variable in half

Half Half

of the cases will be above the middle number of the cases will be below the middle number
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Determining the Median

Interval-Ratio Variable
Odd

Number of Cases: The median is the middle number Even Number of Cases: The median is the average of the two middle numbers

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Median: Example Data

Table 1. age of people Person number 1 2 Age in years 43 57
Table 2. duration of study per student

Student number
1 2 3 4 5 6

Hours / week
0 10 12 12 5 12

3
4 5

45
68 51

6
7 8 9

26
13 1 24

7
8 9 10

1
12 5 11
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Median: Interval-Ratio Variable, Odd Number of Cases

Example: age of people (Table 1)

Steps: Illustrated on next slide

Step 1: Arrange the values in order from smallest to largest Step 2: Assign case numbers from 1 to N Step 3: Find the middle case by adding 1 to N and diving by 2

Here, (N+1)/2 = (9+1)/2 = 10/2 = 5 The fifth case (not the number 5!) has the median Here the 5th case has a value of 43

Step 4: Find the value corresponding to the middle case

Note: The median of 43 divides the distribution in half

Four cases are above the median Four cases are below the median
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Median: Interval-Ratio Variable, Odd Number of Cases

Step 1: Arrange the values in order from smallest to largest

1 1 13 2 24 3 26 4 43 5 45 6 51 7 57 8 68 9

Variable Value Case Number

Step 2: Number the values from 1 to 9 Step 3: Find the middle case: (9+1)/2 = 10/2 = 5 Step 4: Find the value for the 5th case this is the median = 43 Note: 4 cases are above, and 4 are below, the median
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Median: Interval-Ratio Variable, Even Number of Cases

Example: Metallica CDs Owned (Table 2)

Steps: Illustrated on next slide

Step 1: Arrange the values in order from smallest to largest Step 2: Assign case numbers from 1 to N Step 3: Find the middle case by adding 1 to N and diving by 2

Here, (N+1)/2 = (10+1)/2 = 11/2 = 5.5 The median is the average of the 5th and 6th cases Here the 5th case has a value of 10 and the 6th case has a value of 11 The median is (10+11)/2 = 10.5

Step 4: Find the average of the two middle cases

Note: The median of 10.5 divides the distribution in half

Five cases are above the median Five cases are below the median
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Median: Interval-Ratio Variable, Even Number of Cases

Step 1: Arrange the values in order from smallest to largest

Variable Value Case Number

0 1

1 2

5 3

5 4

10 5

11 6

12 7

12 8

12 9

12 10

Step 2: Number the values from 1 to 10

Step 3: Find the middle case: (10+1)/2 = 11/2 = 5.5 (average of the 5th and 6th cases)
Step 4: Find average of the 5th and 6th cases the median is (10+11)/2 = 10.5 Note: 5 cases are above, and 5 are below, the median
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Median in a Frequency Distribution

Median: Value of the variable where the cumulative percentage is 50%

Here the cumulative percentage hits 50% at a value of 3 So the median number of hours of study is 3
Frequency 137 56 48 75 42 15 68 150 591 Percentage 23.2% 9.5% 8.1% 12.7% 7.1% 2.5% 11.5% 25.4% 100.0% Cumulative Percentage 23.2% 32.7% 40.8% 53.5% 60.6% 63.1% 74.6% 100.0%
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Hours of study 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total

Mean

Definition: The average obtained by summing the values of a variable divided by the number of cases

Level of Measurement: Interval-ratio

Comments
It It

incorporates all values of a variable

Unlike the mode and median

can be misleading when there are outlying (extreme) values

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Mean: Formula for a Data Table

=x n

represents the mean Y tells us to sum or add up x represents each value of the variable n represents the number of cases

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Mean: Calculating for a Data Table

Example: hours of study

= x = 0 + 1+ 5+5+10+11+12+12+12+12 = 6.8 n 10

People in this sample study for an average of 6.8 hours

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Mean: Formula for a Frequency Distribution

=f*x n

represents the mean tells us to sum or add up f represents the frequency for each value of the variable x represents each value of the variable f*x tells us to multiply the frequency (f) by the value (Y) n represents the number of cases
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Mean: Calculating for a Frequency Distribution

Example: hours of study

Hours of study(x) 0 1 2 Frequency (f) 137 56 48 fx 1370 = 561 = 482 = 0 56 96

3
4 5

75
42 15

753 =
424 = 155 =

225
168 75

6
7

68
150 N = 591

686 =

408

1507 = 1,050
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Mean: Calculating for a Frequency Distribution

Example: hours of study(continued)

= 0+ 56+96+225+ 168+ 75+408+1078 = 2078 591 591 People in this sample study for an average of 3.52 hours

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Outlying Value

Definition: A value that is very small or large relative to other values of the variable
Effect of Outlying Value
Mode:

Usually has no effect Median: Usually has no effect Mean: May have an effect
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Outlying Value: Potential Effect on Mean

Example: hours of study

Suppose

one student study for 112 (instead of 12) hours = x = 0 + 1+ 5+5+10+11+12+12+12+112 = 168 n 10 10
The

mean is now 16.8

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Determining Skewness: Using the Mean and Median

Procedure
Compare

the mean and median or Subtract the median from the mean
Mean Median

Symmetric Distribution
Comparison:

Mean equals median Mean Median: Difference is zero

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Mean Median Mode

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Determining Skewness: Using the Mean and Median

Positively Skewed Distribution

Comparison:

Mean greater than median Mean Median: Difference is positive

Greater than zero

Negatively Skewed Distribution

Comparison:

Mean smaller than median Mean Median: Difference is negative

Less than zero
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Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

Nominal Variable: Mode only

Ordinal Variable: Median is best
Mode

is also possible

Interval-Ratio Variable
Symmetric Distribution: Mean is typically used Positively

Any will work

or Negatively Skewed Distribution: Median

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is best