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Unit -V

Rectifiers and Switched Mode Power


Supply
Power Supplies
Power supplies provide
the necessary power,
voltage and current
requirements for
electronic devices.
They usually change ac
to dc voltage.
For example, 120 volts
ac is changed to 13.8
volts dc.

Power Supplies
Consist of:
1. Transformer steps ac voltage up or down.
2. Rectifier Diodes change ac to bumpy dc.
3. Filter Network includes capacitors and
inductors, smooths out the bumps.
4. Voltage Regulator keeps the voltage constant
4
Power Supply Overview
5
Power Supply Overview
Transformer sets the appropriate voltage level
Rectifier rectifies AC input voltage to pulsating
DC voltage (can be half wave or full wave rectified
Filter eliminates fluctuations in the rectified
voltage and produces a relatively smooth AC
voltage (this function was performed by the
capacitor)
Regulator maintains a constant voltage despite
variations in the input line voltage or the load
6
Power Supply Overview
Power Supply Circuits
To achieve its purpose a power supply must:
Step down the voltage supplied;
Convert ac to dc by rectifying the ac.
A transformer is used to step down the
magnitude of the voltages from the wall
receptacle.
Transformer
A transformer consists of two coils of wire on a
common iron core. The voltages on these two coils
are related by the turns ratio, which is the ratio of
the number of turns of wire in the secondary coil to
that in the primary coil.
RMS Values
Note that the 110-120 volts and 220-240 volts
are RMS values.
The actual amplitude of that sinusoidal signal
is a factor of 2 larger.

Rectification
Converting ac to dc is accomplished by the
process of rectification.
Two processes are used:
Half-wave rectification;
Full-wave rectification.
IMPORTANCE & REQUIREMENTS
For reasons associated with economics of generation
and transmission, the electric power available is
usually an a.c. supply.
The voltage varies sinusoidal and has a frequency of
50Hz. It is used for lighting, heating and electric
motors.
But there are many applications (e.g. electronic
circuits) where d.c. supply is needed. When such a
d.c. supply is required, the mains a.c. supply is
rectified by using crystal diodes.
TYPES OF RECTIFIERS
Rectifier
Half-wave Rectifier Full-wave Rectifier
Centre-tape
full-wave rec.
Full-wave
Bridge rec.
13
Half Wave Rectifier
Effect of the Barrier Potential
Vp(out) = Vp(in) 0.7 Volts
Note:
V
in
must overcome the barrier potential (0.7V) before the diode becomes
forward biased.
Half Wave Rectifier Barrier Potential
V
p(in)
0.7V. = V
p(out)

Approx. 0.7V is dropped across the forward-biased diode junction.
This voltage is removed at the broad base of the waveform.
See Ex. 2-2 Pg.53
Half Wave Rectifier - Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak inverse voltage
is the maximum
voltage across the
diode when it is in
reverse bias.
(blocking mode)
The diode must be
capable of
withstanding this
amount of voltage.
(-V
p(in)
).
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Diode must be able to withstand PIV (Peak Inverse) voltage
PIV
PIV calculations
PIV = ((V
psec
/2) 0.7V) (-V
psec
/2) =
((V
psec
/2) + (V
psec
/2)) 0.7V =
V
psec
0.7V
Half Wave Rectifier
We initially consider the diode to be ideal, such
that V
C
=0 and R
f
=0

The (ideal) diode conducts for v
i
>0

and since R
f
=0
v
0

~ v
i

For v
i
< 0

the (ideal) diode is an open circuit (it
doesnt conduct) and
v
0

~ 0.
Half Wave Rectifier
In this simplified (ideal diode) case the
input and output waveforms are as shown

The diode must withstand a peak inverse voltage
of V
M
Half Wave Rectifier
The average d.c. value of this half-wave-
rectified sine wave is
(

+ =
}
t
u u
t
0
0 sin
2
1
d V V M AV
| |
t
t
t
M M V V
= = 0 cos cos
2
Half Wave Rectifier
So far this rectifier is not very useful.
Even though the output does not change
polarity it has a lot of ripple, i.e. variations in
output voltage about a steady value.
To generate an output voltage that more
closely resembles a true d.c. voltage we can
use a reservoir or smoothing capacitor in
parallel with the output (load) resistance.
Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
Circuit with reservoir
capacitor
Output voltage
The capacitor charges over the period t
1
to t2 when the diode is on and
discharges from t2 to t3 when the diode is off.
Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
When the supply voltage exceeds the output
voltage the (ideal) diode conducts. During the
charging period (t
1
<

t< t
2
)

v
o
= V
M
sin (et)
(The resistance in the charging circuit is strictly
R
f
which we have assumed to be zero. Even for
a practical diode R
f
C will be very small)

Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
When the supply voltage falls below the output
voltage the diode switches off and the capacitor
discharges through the load.
During the discharge period (t
2

<

t< t
3
) and

v
o
= V
M

exp {- t

/RC}

where t= t- t
2


At time t
3
the supply voltage once again exceeds
the load voltage and the cycle repeats

Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
The resistance in the discharge phase is the
load resistance R.
RC can be made large compared to the wave
period.
The change in output voltage (or ripple) can
then be estimated using a linear
approximation to the exponential discharge.
Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
v
o
= V
M

exp {- t

/RC} ~ V
M

[ 1- (t

/RC)]
The change in voltage AV is therefore
approximately given by V
M
t

/RC
For a the half wave rectifier this discharge
occurs for a time (t
3

- t
2
) close to the period T
= 1/f, with f= frequency.
Giving the required result:
RC
T V
V
M
~
Smoothed Half Wave Rectifier
We can define a ripple factor as



where V
d.c.
= (V
M
- AV/2)

The lower the ripple factor the better

d.c V
V
factor Ripple =
Half Wave Rectifier
If we dont consider the diode to be ideal
then from the equivalent circuit we obtain,
for v
i
>V
c:

v
i
V
c
i R
f
- iR =0
i.e.

Giving
) ( R R
V v
i
f
c i

=
c i c i
f
o V v V v
R R
R
iR v ~
+
= = ) (
) (
Non-Ideal Half Wave Rectifier
VM
Non-Ideal Half Wave Rectifier
A plot of v
0

against v
i
is known as the
transfer characteristic


VC
vi
R/(R + R
f
)
32
Average Voltage Value
the average voltage is a measure of the efficiency
of the rectifier circuit
the straight line dc equivalent of the pulsating
dc created by half wave rectification
the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter

V
p(out)
V
AVG
= ----------



Transformer-Coupled Half-Wave Rectifier
Transformers are often used for voltage change and isolation.
The turns ratio determines the output voltage.
Islolation between the primary and secondary windings.
prevents shock hazards in the secondary circuit
Vsec = N Vpri
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) 0.7V
See Ex.2-3 pg.55
Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive
and negative half cycles or the full 360. Note that the output
frequency is twice the input frequency.
Most power supplies use full-wave rectifiers. Half-wave rectifiers
see lesser applications like lo-cost power supplies.
The average V
DC

or V
AVG
= 2V
p
/t.
35
Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
Full-Wave Rectifier
Center-Tapped
This method of rectification employs two diodes connected to a
center-tapped transformer.
The peak output is only half of the transformers peak
secondary voltage.
Center-tap
Transformer Turns Ratio
Non-center-tapped transformer:
For a turns ratio (output/input) = 1, Output Vp = Input Vp.
For a turns ratio = 2, Output Vp = Input Vp/2

Center-tapped transformer:
For a turns ratio (output/input) = 1, Output Vp = Input Vp/2.
For a turns ratio = 2, Output Vp = Input Vp



38
Bridge Full Wave Rectifier
39
Average Voltage Value
twice that of half wave rectified output
2V
p(out)
V
AVG
= ----------




Since 2/ = 0.637, you can calculate
V
AVG
= 0.637 V
p(out)

The full wave rectifier is twice as efficient as the
half wave rectifier

COMPARISON OF RECTIFIERS
Half-wave Centre-tap Bridge type
No. of diode 1 2 4
Transformer
necessary
No Yes No
Maximum
efficiency
40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Summary of Rectifier Circuits
41
V
m
= peak of the AC voltage.

In the center tapped transformer rectifier circuit, the peak AC voltage
is the transformer secondary voltage to the tap.
Rectifier Ideal V
DC
Realistic V
DC
Half Wave Rectifier V
DC
= 0.318V
m
V
DC
= 0.318V
m
0.7
Bridge Rectifier V
DC
= 0.636V
m
V
DC
= 0.636V
m
2(0.7 V)
Center-Tapped Transformer
Rectifier
V
DC
= 0.636V
m
V
DC
= 0.636V
m
0.7 V
Important Concepts
Half Wave Rectifier:
Simplest.
Hard to filter well.
Full Wave Rectifier:
Easier to filter.
Requires transformer with center-tap.
Transformer secondary must be twice intended voltage.
Bridge Rectifier:
Easier to filter (just like full wave).
Center-tap transformer not required.
Transformer secondary same as intended voltage.
Higher parts count.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
As we have seen, the output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC. With filtration and
regulation this pulsating voltage can be smoothed out and kept to a steady value.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
A capacitor-input
filter will charge
and discharge such
that it fills in the
gaps between
each peak. This
reduces variations
of voltage. The
remaining voltage
variation is called
ripple voltage.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The
capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time between
peaks is shorter.
Ripple is approx.
with full-wave
rectification.
Ripple Voltage Calculations
V
r(pp)
= (1/fR
L
C)V
prect
V
DC
= (1 1/2fR
L
C)V
p(rect)

Power Supply Filters And Regulators
Being that the
capacitor appears as
a short during the
initial charging, the
current through the
diodes can
momentarily be quite
high. To reduce risk
of damaging the
diodes, a surge
current limiting
resistor is placed in
series with the filter
and load.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple and
maintaining the output voltage to a specific value. Typically this regulation is
performed by an integrated circuit regulator. There are many different types
used based on the voltage and current requirements.
Power Supply Filters And Regulators
How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is measured by
its regulation percentage.

There are two types of regulation, line and load.
Line and load regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in
voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage.
Line Regulation = (AV
OUT
/AV
IN
)100%
Load Regulation = (V
NL
V
FL
)/V
FL
)100%
Filter Network
Capacitors and inductors are used in
power supply filter networks. The
capacitors and inductors smooth out
the bumpy ac to dc.
Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors
are used to filter
rectified dc.
They change bumpy
dc to smooth dc.

52
The Basic Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive
components. In its most basic form, it is composed of
two conductive plates separated by an insulating
dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of
capacitance.
Dielectric
Conductors
53
Dielectric
Plates
Leads
Electrons
B A


+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

Initially uncharged
+
B A

+
+
+


+
+
+
+ Charging
+
B A
V
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Fully charged
B A
V
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Source removed
The charging
process
A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.
The Basic Capacitor
54
Charging
55
Discharging
56


How fast does a capacitor charge or discharge?
57
The RC time constant
When a capacitor is charged
through a series resistor and
dc source, the charging curve
is exponential.
C
R
I
initial
t 0
(b) Charging current
V
final
t 0
(a) Capacitor charging voltage
58
Capacitor Charging Voltage Curve
59
Tau (T)
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously because a finite time is required to
move charge from one plate to another
The rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is
determined by the RC time constant of the circuit
The time constant of a series RC circuit is a time
interval that equals the product of the resistance and
capacitance

T = RC

60
When a capacitor is discharged
through a resistor, the
discharge curve is also an
exponential. (Note that the
current is negative.)
t
t
I
initial
0
(b) Discharging current
V
initial
0
(a) Capacitor discharging voltage
C
R
The RC time constant
61
Capacitor Discharging Voltage Curve
62
Universal exponential curves
Specific values for
current and voltage
can be read from a
universal curve. For
an RC circuit, the
time constant is
RC =
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
99%
98%
95%
86%
63%
37%
14%
5%
2%
1%
Number of time constants
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

f
i
n
a
l

v
a
l
u
e
Rising exponential
Falling exponential
63
Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor
Filter
64
First Quarter Cycle
65
Remainder of Cycle
66
Second Cycle
67
68
Ripple Voltage
the variation in the output voltage
much improved when you add filtering
the smaller the ripple, the better the filtering
and the better quality dc output
69
70
Half Wave & Full Wave Ripple
Comparison
71
Ripple Voltage
Make RC > 10T
The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the
effectiveness of the filter and is defined as the
ratio of the ripple voltage (V
r
) to the dc
(average) value of the filter output voltage
(V
DC
)
r = (V
r
/ V
DC
) x 100%
72
Measures

Efficiency Average Voltage Value (V
AVG
)

Filter Quality Ripple Voltage (V
r
) & Ripple
Factor (r)

Regulator Quality Line & Load Regulation

Power Supply Safety
Filter capacitors hold a charge a long time.
They charge to the output voltage of the
power supply.
Bleeder resistors across the filter capacitors
bleed off charge when supply is turned
off.
Bleeder Resistors
A bleeder resistor is installed across the filter
capacitors as a safety feature to make sure
that the capacitors are discharged.
Voltage Regulation
This characteristic of the zener diode is very
useful for voltage regulation circuits. The
zener diode provides an effective way to
clamp or limit the voltage at a relatively
constant value thus creating a voltage
regulation capability.
76
Regulators
IC regulators
Line regulation
Load regulation
77
IC Regulators
Filters reduce ripple from a power supply to a
relatively low level (<10%)
Integrated circuit regulators connect to the
output of a filtered regulator and reduce the
ripple to a negligible level
Regulators maintain a constant output voltage
despite changes in the input voltage, load
current or temperature
Available in a variety of voltages


78
A Basic Regulated Power Supply
79
Percent Regulation
Regulation as a percentage is a figure of merit used
to measure performance of a voltage regulator
Line Regulation
How much change occurs in the output voltage
for a given change in the input voltage
Line Regulation = (V
OUT
/ V
IN
)100%
Load Regulation
How much change occurs in the output voltage
from no load to full load
Load Regulation = (V
NL
V
FL
/ V
FL
)100%
Switching-Mode Power Supplies
SMPS
What is SMPS?

SMPS means Switch Mode Power Supply.
This is used for D.C to D.C conversion.
This works on the principle of switching
regulation. The SMPS system is highly
reliable, efficient, noiseless and compact
because the switching is done at very
high rate in the order of several KHz to
MHz
Switching Power Supplies
Switching Power Supplies
The advantage of a switching-mode power supply is
that the relatively high frequency oscillator allows
the use of small, lightweight and low-cost
transformers.
This makes them considerably smaller and lighter
than linear power supplies. Almost all modern
powers supplies, including those in PCs, are
switching mode power supplies. Their disadvantages
are complexity and RF egress (interference).

Switching Power Supplies
In a switched mode power supply, the first step
in converting 120 V ac to a 12 V dc output is to
rectify and filter the 120 V.

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