Properties of Solutions

Classifying Matter: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Pure Substances
A sample of matter that has definite chemical and physical properties.

Elements
pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substance by physical or chemical means.

Compounds
Pure substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds. Made of elements in a specific ratio that is always the same Has a chemical formula Can only be separated by chemical means, not physically
chemical change

burning, electrolysis, reacting

Mixtures
A combination of two or more pure substances that are not chemically combined. substances held together by physical forces, not chemical No chemical change takes place Each item retains its properties

in the mixture
They can be separated physically
(distillation, filtration)

Chem4kids.com

Mixtures vs. Compounds

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/elements_com_mix_6.shtml

Mixtures
a combination of two or more substances that do not combine chemically, but remain the same individual substances; can be separated by physical means Two types:
Heterogeneous Homogeneous

Based on the prefixes hetero and homo, what do you think are characteristics of these two types of mixtures?

Hetero means different consists of visibly different substances or phases (solid, liquid, gas)

Heterogeneous Mixture

Suspensions
A suspension is a mixture in which particles of material are dispersed throughout a liquid or gas and are large enough to settle out The particles are insoluble Ex snow globe, Orange juice with pulp, medicines that say shake well before use.

Colloids
Have properties of both solutions and suspensions

Particles in a colloid are much smaller than particles in a suspension

Colloids have the same definition as suspensions in that a colloid is a mixture in which particles of material are dispersed throughout a liquid or gas, but the particles of a colloid are not large enough to settle out (sink to the bottom), so they remian floating Particles in a colloid scatter light (Tyndall Effect) Ex milk, fog, paint

Homogeneous Mixture
Homo means the same has the same uniform appearance and composition throughout; maintain one phase (solid, liquid, gas) Commonly referred to as solutions Example:

Solutions
Appears to be a single substance but really two or more substances dissolved in a solvent and evenly distributed Very small particles that never settle out Homogeneous

Examples of Solutions
Alloys solid solutions of metals or non-metals dissolved in metals steel

Iced tea, salt water, soda, gasoline Air

Concentration of a Solution

Dissociating = to break apart ionic compounds into ions NaCl + H2O = Na+ separates from the Cl- and each are surrounded by water molecules Ionizing = another term for Dissociation Dissolving = to break apart covalent bonded molecules Sugar + H2O = molecules of sugar separate in water Not into separate elements

Dissociation vs. Dissolving

This animation shows the dissolving of a molecular compound, sugar, in water and its separation of the molecules.
http://www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/Flash/moles/Dissolving_Sugar_Nonelectrolyte.html

This animation shows the dissociation of an ionic compound, NaCl, in water and its separation into individual ions.
http://www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/Flash/moles/Dissolving_NaClElectrolyte.html

A solute is the substance in a solution that gets dissolved

A solvent is the substance in a solution that does the dissolving If something is soluble, the solute can be dissolved in a particular solvent If something is insoluble, the solute will not be dissolved in a particular solvent

Solute versus Solvent

Solutes can be soluble in some solvents but insoluble in others

If you re talking about two liquids we use the terms miscible and immiscible

Solubility
The amount of solute needed to make a saturated solution in a given solvent at a given temperature For solid solute in liquid solvent solubility rises as temperature rises. For gas solute in a liquid solvent solubility lowers as temperature rises
ex soda goes flat at warm temperatures

For gas solute in a liquid solvent solubility increases pressure rises

Solubility in Health
The fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the bloodstream to carry out their functions. Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver, and are not needed every day in the diet. Generally pose a greater risk for toxicity when consumed in excess than water-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored by the body. Since they are eliminated in urine, we require a continuous daily supply in our diet. The water-soluble vitamins include the vitamin B-complex group and vitamin C.

Concentration
The comparison of solute to solvent

When there is not a lot of solute compared to solvent, the solution is dilute
When there is a lot of solute compared to solvent, the solution is concentrated

Unsaturated Solutions
Contains less solute than it can hold at a given temperature Can add more solute and it wont fall out of the solution

Saturated Solutions
Saturated solution contains all of the solute it can hold at a given temperature. If you add even one more molecule of the solute, it will fall out of solution and rest on the bottom

Supersaturated Solution
Solution that holds more than it usually would at a given temperature Any amount of solute over the maximum will remain undissolved.
Heterogeneous mixture Suspension or Colloid

Solubility Curve
When you dissolve a solute: 1) What is the temperature of the solvent? 2) What is the mass of the solute you are trying to dissolve? 3) What is the mass/volume of the solvent? 4) What is the solute? 5) If solute is a gas-What is the pressure of the solvent?

Methods to speed up dissolving/dissociati on

The molecular nature of the solute and solvent also play a huge role in whether or not a the solute dissolves/dissociates

Polarity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond

Polar bonds result when a highly electronegative atom bonds to a less electronegative atom

Like dissolves Like-Two substances with similar

intramolecular forces are likely to be soluble in each other. non-polar molecules are able to dissolve in nonpolar solvents
CCl4(carbon tetrachloride) in C6H6

polar molecules are able to dissociate in polar solvents

C2H5OH (ethanol) in H2O

ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents

NaCl in H2O or CuCl in NH3 (l) (ammonia)

oil (non-polar) and water (polar) dont mix

Polarity of Molecules
Polar Molecules:
Large amounts of space in postions on the periodic table (large electronegativity difference) Metal + Nonmetal Alcohols

Nonpolar Molecules:
Small amounts of space in postions on the periodic table (large electronegativity difference)

Many organic molecules (propane, methane, dichlormethane)

Strong Electrolytes
dissociate in water, producing positive and negative ions dissolved in water will conduct an electric current in equations show the formation of ions in aqueous (aq) solutions
NaCl Na+ + ClCaCl2 Ca+2 + 2 Cl-

Ionic solute in polar solvents

37

Nonelectrolytes
dissolve as molecules in water do not produce ions in water do not conduct an electric current

Nonpolar solute in nonpolar solvent

38

Water as Solvent
Form aqueous solutions HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O
Many biological fluids are solutions or have solution components One of best solvents for dissolving ionic substances and polar covalent substances Poor solvent for non-polar covalent substances.

Solution Concentration

Solution Concentrations
Dilute (unsaturated)
Small amount of solute for given solvent

Concentrated
Large amount of solute for given solvent

Saturated
Maximum amount of solute for given solvent

Saturated
Maximum amount of solute for given solvent

Supersaturated
contains more dissolved solute than normally possible

But these terms are qualitative, not quantitative, and are open to interpretation.

Quantitative ways to describe solution concentrations Expressed as a ratio of the amount of solute to the total
amount of solution:
Amount of solute Concentration = Total amount of solution

Molarity
Expressed as a ratio of the amount of solute to the total amount of solution:

Molarity (M) =

Moles of solute
Liter of solution

Molality
Expressed as a ratio of the amount of solute to the total amount of solution:

Molarity (M) =

Moles of solute
Kg of solution

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative Properties
colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend upon the ratio of the number of solute particles to the number of solvent molecules in a solution. Vapor pressure lowering Boiling point elevation Freezing Point depression

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid is in a closed container, an equilibrium exists between the liquid and its gaseous phase. This equilibrium exists regardless of the temperature. The equilibrium exists due to the fact that some of the solvent particles in the liquid, essentially at any temperature, will always have enough energy to enter the gaseous phase above the liquid.

Vapor Pressure Lowering by Adding a Solute

The particles of solute are surrounded by and attracted to particles of solvent. Now the solvent particles have less kinetic energy and tend less to escape into the space above the liquid. So the vapor pressure is less.

Ionic vs Molecular Solutes

Ionic solutes produce two or more ion particles in solution.

They affect the colligative properties proportionately more than molecular solutes (that do not ionize).
Vant Hoff Factor (i)

How many particles do each of the following give upon solvation? NaCl i=2 CaCl2 i=3
Glucose (C6H12O6) i=1

Al2(SO4)3 i=5

Which is more effective for lowering the freezing point of water? Why?
NaCl or CaCl2

C6H12O6 or

Pb(NO3)2

Ethanol or Propanol

Freezing Point Depression

Salt is added to melt ice by reducing the freezing point of water.

This salty water does not re-freeze unless the temperature of the air decreases

Boiling Point Elevation

Why do we put salt in water to boil spaghetti? Many think it makes the water boil quicker and that is very wrong. In fact, it takes longer for the water to boil. While it is true that adding salt to water adds flavor to the water, which is absorbed by the food. The main reason for adding salt to water is that this increases the boiling point of the water, meaning your water will have a higher temperature when you add the pasta, so it will cook better (wont slick as much)

Boiling-Point Elevation
0 DTb = Tb T b
0 Tb is the boiling point of the pure solvent T b is the boiling point of the solution

0 Tb > T b

DTb > 0

DTb = Kb x m x i
m is the molality of the solution Kb is the molal boiling-point elevation constant (0C/m) i is the Vant Hoff Factor

Freezing-Point Depression DTf = T 0 f Tf

T
0
f

Tf

is the freezing point of the pure solvent is the freezing point of the solution

T0 f > Tf

DTf > 0

DTf = Kf x m x i
m is the molality of the solution Kf is the molal freezing-point depression constant (0C/m) i is the Vant Hoff Factor

Molal Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression Constants of Several Common Liquids

What is the freezing point of a solution containing 478 g of ethylene glycol (anifreeze) in 3202 g of water? The molar mass of ethylene glycol is 62.01 g.

DTf = Kf m
moles of solute

Kf water = 1.86 0C/m

478 g x = 3.202 kg solvent 1 mol 62.01 g = 2.41 m

m = mass of solvent (kg)

DTf = Kf x m x i = 1.86 0C/m x 2.41 m x 1 = 4.48 0C

DTf = T 0 f Tf
0C 4.48 0C = - 4.48 0C = 0 Tf = T 0 D T f f

What is the boiling point of a solution containing 478 g of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) in 3202 g of water? The molar mass of ethylene glycol is 62.01 g.

DTf = Kf m
moles of solute

Kf water =0.520C/m
478 g x = 3.202 kg solvent 1 mol 62.01 g = 2.41 m

m = mass of solvent (kg)

DTb = Kb x m x i = 0.52 0C/m x 2.41 m = 1.25 0C

0 DTb = T b -Tb

Tb = T 0b + DTb = 100 0C + 1.25 0C = 101.25 0C

Acids and Bases

Acids
from the Latin word acere sharp or sour taste sour (but you wouldnt taste an acid to see) change litmus paper red corrosive to some metals (reacts to create hydrogen gas H2) a substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H+) to another substance

create a hydrogen ion (H+) or hydronium ion (H3O+) when dissolved in water

+ + ClH HCl
H 2O

Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrogen ion

Chloride ion

taste bitter (but you wouldnt taste a base to see)

Bases (Alkaline Solutions)

feel slippery or soapy

change litmus paper blue react with oils and grease

a substance that can accept a hydrogen ion (H+) from another substance
create a hydroxide ion (OH-) when dissolved in water

NaOH Na+ + OHSodium Hydroxide Sodium ion Hydroxide ion

H 2O

occurs when acids and bases react with each other to produce water and salt

Neutralization Reaction

acids release a hydrogen ion (H+) and bases release a hydroxide ion (OH-) water (H2O) the negative ion from the acid joins with the positive ion of a base salt

HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl

Hydrochloric Acid
(acid)

Sodium Hydroxide
(base)

Water

Sodium Chloride
(salt)

pH Scale
Low H+ concentration pH 14 13 12
(sodium hydroxide)

NaOH

ranges from 0-14

Acids pH<7 Neutral pH > 7

Basic

11 10 9 8

(antacid tablets)

Tums

Neutral

7 6 5 4

Pure Water
(distilled)

Acidic

Soda

measures the acidity or basicity of a solution by focusing on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution equals the negative log of the concentration of H+

3 2 1 pH 0

(hydrochloric acid)

HCl

High H+ concentration