THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING A TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN

MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
• Every living organism constantly needs the exchange of substances such as
nutrients, waste products, and respiratory gases with the environment in order to
survive and grow.
• The exchange of substances between the organism and its environment usually
takes place through diffusion.
• The exchange of substances occurs rapidly if:-
(a) the surface area of the organism in contact with the environment is large
(b) the volume of the organism is small
(c) the total surface area/volume ratio (TSA/V) of the organism is large
(d) the distance between the source of the substances and the body cells is near
(e) a high concentration gradient is maintained between the source and the body cells

1
TOTAL SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME
• Unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. obtain substances via diffusion
through the cell surface.
• They do not face any problem in obtaining their cellular requirements via diffusion because the
volume of the body is small ( the total surface area/volume ratio is very high.
• Therefore, nutrients and oxygen can diffuse through the cell surface to reach the inside of the
cell easily. Similarly, waste products can be rapidly removed from the cell through simple
diffusion.
• However, in large multicellular organism diffusion alone cannot ensure a constant supply of
oxygen and nutrients to the cells because
(a) the total surface area/volume ratio of the organisms is too small.
(b) the distance between the source of substances and the cells of the organisms is too far from
the environment for a direct exchange to take place effectively.
• Therefore, multicellular organisms need to overcome the problem of obtaining their cellular
requirements and in getting rid of the waste product
• They overcome this problem by having a circulatory system to carry out
(a) the distribution of nutrients and oxygen throughout the body, and
(b) the removal of waste products form the body.

2
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• The circulatory system
(a) delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells
(b) carries waste products away from the cells
(c) protects the body from infections
• The circulatory system has three major components.
(a) The blood is a type of connective tissue made up of plasma, blood cells and platelets. Blood
acts as a medium of transport.
(b) The heart functions as a muscular pump that circulates the blood throughout the body.
(c) The blood vessels are vessels consisting of arteries, capillaries and veins that are
connected to the heart to deliver blood to all body tissues.

• BLOOD AND HAEMOLYMPH

• Blood is the medium of transport in humans and animals.
• In many invertebrates such as insects, the medium of transport is called the
haemolymph.
• The haemolymph is a blood-like nutritive fluid which fills the entire body cavity
(haemocoel) and surrounds all cells.
3
BLOOD: TRANSPORTATION, REGULATION AND PROTECTION.
Blood transports
(a) oxygen from the lungs to the cell of whole body, and carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
(b) nutrients, hormones and antibodies throughout the body.
(c) waste products away from the cell to the organs of the excretory system
Blood regulates
(a) the pH of body fluids
(b) the body temperature
(c) the water content of cells
Blood protects
(a) from excessive blood loss in an injury through the mechanism of blood clotting It helps to heal wounds.
(b) from diseases and helps to fight against infections, for example, white blood cell carry out phagocytosis and
producesvantibodies to destroy pathogens which enter the body.

FUNCTION OF HAEMOLYMPH
– Haemolymph transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the haemocoel.
– Unlike blood, haemolymph does not transport respiratory gases.

4
 Human blood Composition

Human Blood

Blood cell Blood Plasma

Platlet Leucocytes Erythrocytes

Fibrinogen Serum
• 2.5 mil/mm3 • 7000 mil/mm3 • 5 mil/mm3

Granulosit :- Agranulosit :-
• Basofil • Monosit
• Neutrofil • Limfosit
• Eosinofil

5
THE COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BLOOD

Human blood is made up

of

55% plasma 45% cellular components

Water :about 90% of the

plasma 1. red blood cell (erythrocytes)
10% of :-
> ion 2. white blood (leucocytes)
> Plasma protein
> Fibrinogen 3. platelets.
> Immunoglobulins
> Hormones
>Dissolve substance

6
Blood plasma
CONSTITUTION
Water :
about 90% of the plasma
Ion: potassium, sodium,
magnesium, calcium, chloride
and bicarbonate ions
Plasma protein:
Albumin
Fibrinogen
Immunoglobulins
Hormones
Dissolve substance:
glucose and vitamin, waste
products such as urea and
respiratory gases (oxygen and
carbon dioxcide)
FUNCTION
A solvent to transport dissolved substances such as glucose and
amino acids.
Maintain the osmotic balance and the pH of the blood at 7.4.
Collectively, the plasma proteins maintain the osmotic
balance between the blood and the interstitial fluid. They also act
as buffers against any pH changes and provide a defense against
injuries and diseases.
Clotting factor that helps blood clotting when blood vessels are cut.
Antibodies that help in the body's defense.
Control physiological activities in the body.
• Nutrients are important for the production of energy, growth
and the maintenance of health.
• Oxygen is needed during cellular respiration
7
• Platelets are fragments of large bone marrow.
• They have no nucleus and are about 2-3 µ.m in
diameter.

FUNCTION:
important role in blood clotting

8
  shaped like a biconcave disc (thinner in the centre than at
the edges).
• does not have a nucleus.
• is small, about 7.5 µ,m in diameter.
has an elastic membrane which enables it to squeeze easily into the tiniest
blood capillaries.
 All these characteristics give an erythrocyte a large surface area to volume
ratio for the rapid diffusion of oxygen across its plasma membrane.
 A single erythrocyte contains about 250 million molecules of haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin is an oxygen-carrying protein pigment that
gives the erythrocyte its red colour.
 Haemoglobin contains a haem group. The haem group
contains an iron atom and is the site of oxygen binding.
 The usual lifespan of an erythrocyte is about 120 days, after
which it is destroyed in the liver and spleen,
 Erythrocytes are continuously manufactured in the bone
marrow of long bones, the ribs,the skull and the vertebrae.

9
1. Leucocytes are colourless and have nuclei and mitochondria. They are irregular in
shape.
2. Leucocytes make up less than 1 % of the volume of blood.
3. Most of them are larger than red blood cells.They are made by the stem cells in the
bone marrow.
4. Their collective function is to fight infections in various ways. When pathogens
invade the body, the number of leucocytes increases.
5. Most activities of leucocytes take place in the interstitial fluid outside the blood
vessels.
6. Leucocytes can squeeze through the pores in the blood capillaries and fight the
pathogens present in the interstitial fluid

10
LEUCOCYTES

11
 There are three types of human blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries
 The walls of arteries and veins consist of epithelial tissues surrounded by smooth muscles and
connective tissues. However, the smooth muscle layer in veins is thinner than that in arteries.
 The thick, muscular and elastic walls of arteries enable them to withstand the high pressure of
blood flowing through them. The aorta is the main artery leaving the heart.
 The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs, while The pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
heart.
 Arterioles are small arteries that branch into a network of capillaries which reach into the tissues.
 Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled blood vessels. Respiratory gases, nutrients, waste products, and
hormones are exchanged by diffusion between the blood and the interstitial fluid surrounding the
cells across the thin walls of the capillaries. The walls of the capillaries are only one-cell thick.

12
 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART
THE HUMAN HEART
The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size
of a clenched fist. The heart pumps the blood which:-
•carries vital materials required by the body
•removes waste products that the body does not
need
The human heart has four muscular chambers capable of
strong contractions
•The two upper chambers are the atria (singular,
atrium) and the two lower chambers are the
ventricles.
•The atria receive blood returning to the heart while
the ventricles pump blood out of the heart.
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle.
•When it contracts, it pumps blood.
•When it relaxes, its chambers are filled with blood.
The atria have relatively thin walls and function as
collection chambers. The right atrium receives
deoxygenated blood from the vena cava while the left
atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary
veins.
As the atria contract, blood is pumped into ventricles. The
ventricles have thicker walls and stronger contractions than
the atria.
The muscular wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the
wall of the right ventricle. This is because the left ventricle
needs to pump blood to all parts of the body while the right
ventricle pumps blood to the lungs only. 13
 HEART STRUCTURE (VALVE)

The heart has valves that allow blood

to flow in one direction only:-

(a) The valve between the right atrium

and the right ventricle is the tricuspid
valve while the valve between the left
atrium and the left ventricle is called
the bicuspid valve
(b) The powerful contractions of the
ventricles force these valves to close,
preventing blood from flowing back
into the atria.
(c) The semi-lunar valves are located
at the exits, where the pulmonary
artery and aorta leave the heart.
(d) These valves prevent blood from
flowing back into the ventricles when
the ventricles relax.

14
 Semilunar valve

Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve

15
 1. From the body
(vena kava)
2. Right autrium

tricuspid
valve
Right ventricel

3. semilunar
To lung
valve
pulmonary
4. From lung
artery
(pulmonary
veins)
5. Left atrium
bicuspid valve

Left ventricel

6. To all over Body
semilunar valve
aorta
16
 The pumping of the heart

1. Each time the heart contracts, it acts as a pump sends blood throughout the body.
2. The heart is made up of a strong muscle, called cardiac muscle. cardiac muscle cells are interconnected
3. This interconnection allows electrical impulses spread rapidly through the heart and, at the same time,
stimulates the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a coordinated movement.
4. The cardiac muscle is myogenic. This means it contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation
by nerve impulses to make it contract
5. The contraction of the heart are initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker:-
– pacemaker is a cluster of specialized heart muscle cells that set the rate of contraction.
– The pacemaker is located in the wall of the right atrium.
– The pacemaker generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing
the atria to contract rhythmically.
6. The heart's primary pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node because it keeps the heartbeats regular.
7. From the SA node, the impulses are relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node, located at the bottom of the
right atrium .The AV node sends impulses to the ventricles to contract.
8. From the AV node, specialised muscle fibres called bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje
fibres send the impulses to the apex of the heart and throughout the walls of the ventricles. This causes the
ventricles to contract and pump blood out to the lungs and other parts of the body.
9. Although the pacemaker sets the pace of the rhythmic contractions of the heart, the pacemaker is controlled
by both the nervous system and the endocrine system.
10. Two opposing sets of nerves regulate the pacemaker.
(a) The parasympathetic nerves slow down the pacemaker while the sympathetic nerves speed up the
pacemaker.
(b) The pacemaker is also controlled by hormones secreted into the blood,
(c) The hormone adrenaline (or epinephrine) increases the heartbeats during fear, excitement or 17
danger.
 CARDIAC CYCLE

The regulatory mechanism of Pressure

When blood flows along a vessel, it exerts pressure
against the walls of the blood vessel.
This pressure is called blood pressure.
Blood pressure is the force that pumps blood along
the arteries and the capillaries.
Blood pressure is greater in arteries than in veins.
Blood flows from areas of high pressure to areas of
lower pressure.
During the contraction of the ventricles (the systole
stage), blood pressure is highest in the aorta and
large arteries when blood is pumped into the aorta
and pulmonary arteries
At rest, a healthy adult has a blood pressure 120/80
mm Hg.
(a) The first number is the systolic press.the highest
recorded pressure in an artery when the ventricles
contract,
(b) The second number, the diastolic pressure. is the
lowest recorded pressure during the relaxation phase
of the heartbeats (the diastole stage).

18
 The circulatory system
• The circulatory system of large multicellular organisms can be divided into two types:
• the open circulatory system (insect)
- system consists of:-
(a) one or more hearts,
(b) a network of vessels, and
(c) a large open space within the (haemocoel)

the closed circulatory system.

• - All vertebrates including humans and invertebrates such as molluscs (squids) and annelids
(earthworms) have a closed circulatory system.
• - In a closed circulatory system, the blood flows within the heart and vessels.
• - One or more hearts pump blood into vessels that branch into smaller vessels in the organs.
• - Here, a chemical exchange takes place between the blood and the interstitial fluid, and
between the interstitial fluid and the bodv cells

19
 The circulatory system of insects
• One or more hearts pump the haemolymph through the vessels and into the
haemocoel.
• The haemocoel contains the soft internal organs and is filled with haemolymph.
• Here, a chemical exchange between the haemolymph and the body cells takes place.
• The haemolymph flows from the hearts into the haemocoel when the hearts contract.
• When the hearts relax, the haemolymph is drawn through pores called ostia
(singular, ostium) back into the hearts.
• The ostia are equipped with valves that close when the hearts contract.

20
 The circulatory system in fish

• A fish has a heart with two main chambers, one atrium and one ventricle.
• Blood leaving the ventricle goes first to the gill capillaries where gaseous exchange
takes place.
• The gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries the oxygenated blood to
the body capillaries or systemic capillaries.
• In the systemic capillaries, oxygen diffuses into the tissues while carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the tissues and into the capillaries.
• The deoxygenated blood then returns to the atrium of the heart through the veins.
• Since the circulatory system of fish has only one circuit, that is, the blood goes to
the gill capillaries and then the systemic capillaries, it is called a single circulatory
system.

21
 The circulatory system in amphibians
• Frog and other amphibians have a three-cambered heart consisting of two atria and one ventricle.
• Deoxygenated blood from the body is carried into the right atrium while oxygenated blood from the lung is sent to
the left atrium.
• Blood from both atria then enters a single ventricle.
• Although there is some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle, most of the oxygenated
blood remains in the left portion of ventricle while deoxygenated blood tends to remain in the right portion of the
ventricle.
• the ventricle then pumps blood through the pulmocutaneous circulation and the systemic circulation
• pulmocutaneous circulation delivers the deoxygenated blood to the organs involved in
• gaseous exchange, that is, the lungs and skin,
• The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart and most of it is then pumped into the systemic
circulation.
• systemic circulation carries the oxygenated blood to the body tissues and returns the deoxygenated blood to the
right atrium through the vein
• Since the blood flows in two separate circuits, that is pulmocutaneous circulation and the systemic circulation, the
system is known as a double circulatory system.

22
 The circulatory system in humans
Humans have a four-chambered heart: two atria and two
completely separated ventricles.Deoxygenated blood and
oxygenated blood do not mix.
The four chambers ensure an efficient and rapid delivery of
highly oxygenated blood to the organs of the body.
In the pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood in
the right ventricle is pumped into the pulmonary arteries.
These arteries carry the blood to the lungs where it passes
through the blood capillaries.
This allows the removal of carbon dioxide and the intake of
oxygen from the air into the alveoli.
In the systemic circulation, blood is carried from the heart
to the other parts of the body except the lungs.
The oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the left
atrium and flows into the left ventricle.
The oxygenated blood is then pumped into the systemic
capillaries via the aorta.
(a) Since there are two separate circulations: the systemic
and the pulmonary circulations, humans have a double
circulatory system.
(b) This means that in a complete circulation, the blood
flows through the heart twice.
(c) This double circulation ensures that oxygenated blood is
constantly delivered to the cells
23
 Blood Circulation
• Arterial systole – blood from right
atrium enters the right ventricle.
• Ventricular systole- ventricle
contracts, pushing blood from
ventricle into the pulmonary artery
and to the lungs
• Respiratory gaseous exchange in
the alveoli of the lungs, blood is
reoxygenated
• Oxygenated blood from lungs
enters the left atrium ( during
atrial diastole).
• Blood enters the left ventricle from
the atrium and is pumped into the
dorsal aorta ( during ventricular
systole, whence the semi-lunar
valve opens.
• Oxygenated blood in the aorta is
circulated to all over the tissues in
the body through arterial system.
7&8.Gaseous exchange in the body
tissues. Oxygen is taken up by the
cells in the tissue for cell
respiration. CO2 is released into
the blood .
9&10. deoxygenated blood is carried
back to the heart.
11. The blood enters the atrium. 24
The differences between the circulatory systems of insects, fish,
amphibians and humans

25
 circulatory system in animals

Cicularatory system

Closed Open

single Double Insect

Not complete :-
Complete :-
Fish • Reptilia
• Human
• Amfibia

26
Blood Clotting
• Blood clotting is a body mechanism to stop or minimise blood loss from damaged blood vessels.
• Blood clotting is necessary to
• (a) prevent serious blood loss when a person is injured
• (b) maintain blood pressure
• (c) maintain the circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system
• (d) prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign substances into the damaged blood vessels

Trapped blood cells

Blood Clotting
27
Blood clotting mechanism

28
 Problem related to blood clotting
• A defect at any step in the clotting process can lead to impaired blood clotting.
• Problem related to blood clotting include haemophilia and thrombosis.
Haemophilia
• A hereditary disease. The affected person lacks certain clotting factors in his blood.
• The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even minor cuts
and bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.
• Haemophiliacs may also experience spontaneous internal bleeding, even though they
have not injured.
Thrombosis
• Sometimes blood clots from within the blood vessels because of various factors. For
example, is a defect in the blood vessel walls or the blood flows too slowly. This
causes the clotting factors to accumulate and stimulate the formation of a clot.
• A clot formation inside an unbroken blood vessel is known as thrombosis.
• Such a clot is called a thrombus.
• Sometimes, a thrombus may be dislodged and moves in the bloodstream.
• A blood clot moving in a bloodstream is called an embolus.
• The embolus moves along until it is unable to pass through a narrow artery and
becomes lodged.
• When this happens, the blood flow in the blood vessel is obstructed.
• The potentially dangerous clots are more likely to occur in individuals who have
cardiovascular diseases, and diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
• If a clot forms in a coronary artery (the artery that supplies blood to the heart), the
cardiac muscle tissues below the obstruction no longer receive oxygenated blood and
may die. This can lead to a heart attack.
• If a clot blocks blood flow to the brain, a stroke may result.

29
The Lymphatic System 1
• Blood that enters the arterial end of capillaries is
under high pressure.
• This blood pressure causes fluid to leak
continuously from the blood plasma into the spaces
between the cells. This fluid is known as the
interstitial fluid
• The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the
cells and constantly bathes the cells.
• The exchange of substances between the bi
capillaries and the body cells occurs in interstitial
fluid.
(a) Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood through
the interstitial fluid into the body cells.
(b) Carbon dioxide and other waste products diffuse from
the body cells through interstitial fluid into the blood.
The composition of the interstitial fluids
• (a) The interstitial fluid consists of dissolved
nutrients, hormones, products, gases and small
proteins from the blood. Leucocytes ooze through
the openings in the capillary walls.
• (b) It does not contain plasma proteins (albumin,
globulin and fibrinogen) erythrocytes and platelets
because are too large to pass through the capillary
walls.
• The interstitial fluid must be returned to the
circulatory system to maintain the normal blood
volume.About 15% of the fluid that still remains in
the interstitial space is equivalent to about 4 litres
of fluid lost from the blood capillaries each day.This
fluid loss is returned to the blood through the
lymphatic system.
30
Lymphatic System

31
The Lymphatic System 2
• The lymphatic system receives the unabsorbed interstitial fluid from the spaces
between the cells and returns it to the circulatory system.
• The lymphatic system is a one-way system insisting of a network of lymph
capillaries, larger lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.
• The lymph capillaries are blind-ended tubes (closed at one end) located in the
spaces between the cells.
• The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into
the lymph capillaries.
• Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph. Lymph is a
transparent yellowish fluid.
• Lymph capillaries converge into larger lymphatic vessel
• Within the lymphatic vessels are one-way valves to ensure the continuous flow of
the lymph away from body cells and to prevent the backflow of the lymph.
• Located at intervals along the lymphatic vessels are the lymph nodes.
– The lymph nodes produce and store lymphocytes.
– They help to protect the body against infections.
• From the lymphatic vessels, the lymph eventually drains into one of the two main
channels: the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct.
• (a) The thoracic duel receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck and
chest, the left upper limb and the entire body below the ribs.
• (b) The right lymphatic duct receives lymph from the right arm, shoulder area, and
the right side of the head and neck.
• The thoracic duct empties its lymph into the left subclavian vein while the right
lymphatic duct empties its lymph into the right subclavian vein. Hence, the lymph
is drained back into the blood.
• The lymphatic system does not have a pump to move the lymph through the
lymphatic vessels.
• The lymph moves to the subclavian veins with the help of :-
• (a) one-way valves along the lymphatic vessels
• (b) contractions of the surrounding skeletal muscles
• (c) intestinal movements
• (d) the changes in the pressure that occur during inhalation and exhalation

32
The role of the lymphatic system in transport 1
The role of the lymphatic system in transport
• By returning excess interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream, the lymphatic system helps maintain the fluid
balance in the body.
– If the excess fluid is not returned to the bloodstream, the body tissues become swollen because of too
much fluid.
– An excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in the spaces between the cells results in a condition known
as oedema.
– Oedema may be caused by a blocked lymphatic vessel.
• Returning this excess interstitial fluid into the bloodstream is crucial because water, nutrient and other
molecules continuously leak out of blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues.
• The lymph also contains tiny droplets of lipids. Lymph capillaries that transport droplets of lipid and fat-soluble
vitamins to the bloodstream are called lacteals.
• Role of the Circulatory System in the Defence Mechanism of the body
• In addition to its transport role, the circulatory system defends the body against foreign bodies, especially
disease-causing microorganisms.
• There are three lines of defence mechanisms in our body:

33
First line of defence
• The first line of defence consists of physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from
entering the body.
• These barriers are non-specific defences, that is, they do not differentiate one pathogen from
another.
Second line of defence
• Pathogens that penetrate the first line of defence, such as those that enter through a break in the
skin, face the second line of defence.
• The second line of defence is also non-specific.
• Phagocytic white blood cells or phagocytes can perform phagocytosis.
(a) In phagocytosis, phagocytes engulf and ingest microorganisms and other foreign particles
such as cellular debris.
(b) The two main types of phagocytes are neutrophils and monocytes.
(c) When an infection occurs, neutrophils and monocytes migrate to the infected area, attracted
by the chemicals released by damaged cells. They enter the interstitial fluid by squeezing
through capillary walls.
(d) During the migration, the monocytes enlarge and develop into macrophages. Macrophages
are found mainly in the interstitial fluid.
(e) When a phagocyte encounters an invading pathogen, the phagocyte engulfs the pathogen.
(f) Inside the phagocyte, the pathogen is destroyed by lysozyme.

34
The role of the lymphatic system in transport 2
Third line of defence
• The third line of defence involves the immune system which is specific or targeted defence.
• It recognises specific pathogens, cancer cells and certain chemicals, and defends the body
against them.
• Immunity means the body resistance to the pathogen which causes a specific disease.
• The external surface of an invading microorganisms contains specific molecules called
antigens
(a) Antigens are substances, usually proteins, that the immune system recognises as foreign or not part of
the body. Antigens are normally found on the outer surface of an invading microorganism.
(b) Other antigens include snake venom and bacterial toxins.When the immune system identifies the antigens
invading the body, it is stimulated to defend the body against those antigens. This type of defence is
known as an immune response.
• Each antigen induces certain lymphocytes to secrete specific antibodies that only react
specifically with that antigen.
• Antibodies are proteins found on the surface of lymphocytes, or proteins released by
lymphocytes into the blood plasma.
• The interaction between the antibody and the antigen which results in the elimination of the
antigen from the body is known as an immune response.
• An antibody molecule has an antigen-binding site or antigen receptor.
• The antigen-binding site is highly specific, in that each antibody can only bind to a specific
antigen.
• After it is bound to the antigen molecule, the antigen can be destroyed in several ways.
• Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood, lymph, thymus, lymph nodes
and spleen.
• Hence, the lymphatic system not only plays a role in returning excess interstitial fluid to the
circulatory system, but it also helps defend the body against invasion by pathogens.
• When a person has an infection, pathogens and white blood cells collect in great numbers in
the lymph nodes. The lymph nodes may become swollen.
• The lymph nodes contain macrophages that destroy bacteria, dead tissues and other foreign
substances through phagocytosis. They also contain lymphocytes that destroy antigens and
foreign organisms. 35
 How Antibodies Defend the Body 1
• The antibodies produced defend
the body through following ways:

Agglutination
• Antibodies and the antigens stick
together and the microorganisms
clump together in large numbers
making the antigens harmless
• These incapacitated pathogens are
then ingested by the phagocytes.

Opsonisation
• A microorganism (antigen) is
covered with antibodies which
makes it easier for ingestion
by phagocytes.
• An antibody-coated pathogen can
be made to burst (cell lysis),
killing it before being ingested by
phagocytes.

36
 How Antibodies Defend the Body 2
Neutralisation:
• Antibodies bind to the toxins
(antigens), thereby neutralising the
poison simply by disabling the
chemical action of the toxins.
• When an antibody binds to a toxin,
it is called an antitoxin (if the toxin
comes from some form of venom, it
is called an antivenin).
• The disabled toxin is then ingested
by the phagocytes (macrophage).
• Viruses and bacteria are similarly
neutralised to prevent them from
attaching to and penetrating body
cells

Precipitation
• Antibodies bind to the soluble
antigens cause them to
precipitation
• They can then be ingested by the
phagocytes

37

TYPE OF IMMUNITY
(a) Naturally acquired active immunity or
immunity that is obtained after a person
recovers from an infection
b) Artificially acquired active immunity or
immunity that is obtained through
Immunisation or vaccination
IMMUNITY1
CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
•When a person is exposed to a pathogen, the antigens of •The person is immune to
the pathogens stimulate an immune response. the chicken pox virus after
•The immune system produces antibodies in response to he has been infected by it.
the antigens.
•After the person recovers from the infection, the person is
immune to the pathogen because the lymphocytes remain
in the body.
•Permanent immunity follows the infection
•Some diseases such as measles are highly contagious. A •The person becomes
serious illness or death may result when a person is immune to the measles
exposed to the pathogens for the first time.
virus after being inoculated
•Therefore, it is prudent to immunise a person, that is, to
activate his immune response artificially by injecting a
with the measles vaccine.
vaccine before the infection occurs. •Other examples are
•A vaccine' is a preparation of weakened, dead or non- vaccinations against
virulent forms of a pathogen that is not harmful to the hepatitis B, diphtheria,
person who receives it. pertussis, tetanus, and
•A vaccine stimulates the body to produce antibodies
poliomyelitis
capable of binding to the antigen.
•The process of inducing immunity by administering a •Examples of vaccines are
vaccine is called immunisation. the Salk poliomyelitis
•The vaccine that contains weakened live microorganisms vaccine and the Sabin
causes only very mild symptoms. The vaccine containing vaccine.
killed viruses or bacteria can tigger an immune response
but cannot induce the disease.
•Therefore, the body has acquired immunity through
vaccination.
•Subsequently, if a live pathogen invades the body, it is
able to eliminate the pathogen immediately because it
already has the antibodies against the Pathogen.
38

TYPE OF IMMUNITY
Passive immunity
• Naturally acquired passive
immunity or immunity that is obtained
from the mother either through the
breast milk or via the placenta
•Artificially acquired passive immunity
or
•immunity that is obtained through the
injection of a serum which contains
specific antibodies
IMMUNITY 2
CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
•A foetus can receive maternal antibodies •Antibodies that are
naturally from its mother through the placenta. transferred through the
•These antibodies protect the baby in the first placenta or mother's milk.
few months after birth.
•Babies can also acquire passive immunity
through breastfeeding as the antibodies are
found in the mother's milk or colostrum.
•Passive immunity is temporary because the
antibodies are eventually broken down in the
spleen and liver
•An immunity that is obtained through the •A serum containing
injection or transfusion of a serum containing a antibodies against specific
specific antibody against the disease.
•For example, a serum which contains diseases such as tetanus.
antibodies or an antiserum from donors can be
injected into a person who needs the antibodies,
for example, travellers visiting countries where
hepatitis is endemic.
•These antibodies temporarily protect the
travellers in the event they are exposed to the
hepatitis virus.
•This type of immunity, although effective,
usually disappears after several weeks or
months .
39
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the human immune system.
• Infection caused by the HIV leads to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
• When a person has AIDS, the infected person is vulnerable to various infections because immune
• cells are being destroyed progressively.
• AIDS is the end stage of infection by the virus.
• The virus reproduces inside the lymphocytes and destroys them in the process.
• A person who is infected with HIV may be sympthom-free for many years, even when the virus is actively
attacking his immune system.The disease may take 8 to 10 years to develop and for the svmptoms to manifest.
• Since the immune system of a person is weakened, the body is vulnerable to many types of infections.
• Eventually, the immune system collapses and the victim dies of an infection that his immune system would
have been able to cope with under normal circumstances.
Transmission_of_HIV
• HIV enters the body through the transfer of body fluids (for example, blood or semen) or across the placenta.
• (a) Newborn babies can be infected with the virus from their infected mothers at birth, or through breastfeeding.
• (b) However, HIV infection of foetuses and newborn babies can be prevented if the infected mothers get proper
medical treatment during pregnancy and delivery.
• Teenagers and adults can get the disease from
(a) unprotected sex with an infected person
(b) contaminated needles used to inject drugs or for tattoos
Prevention of AIDS
• Blood products used should be treated to destroy the virus.
• Educational programmes should inform everyone about the risk of unprotected sex and the sharing of needles.
• Use condoms to reduce the risk of infection.
• Stay away from sex with many partners. Partners in a new relationship should check their HIV status by having
a blood test.To date, there is no vaccine yet for AIDS although certain drugs may retard the progress of the
disease.

40
Appreciating a Healthy Cardiovascular System
• Diseases linked to the cardiovascular system are:-
(a) coronary thrombosis
(b) atherosclerosis
(c) arteriosclerosis
(d) hypentension
(e) heart attack
(f) stroke
• Some of the factors that contribute to cardiovascular
diseases are
(a) a diet high in fats and low in fibre
(b) a lack of exercise
(c) obesity
(d) smoking
(e) stress
(f) high cholesterol levels
(g) deficiencies in antioxidant vitamins and minerals
• This means that the type of food we eat and the lifestyle we
lead can affect our cardiovascular system.
• The build-up and onset of the diseases usually take years.
• The risk of cardiovascular diseases can be reduced if a
person leads a healthy lifestyle which includes regular
exercise and a proper diet.
• Steps to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases:
a) Restrict the intake of animal fats and cholesterol
b) Avoid too much weight gain
c) Do not smoke
d) Live a less stressful life
e) Exercise regularly

41
The Transport of Substances in Plants
– Plants have a transport system to water and
dissolved solutes to different) plants.
– The vascular tissues in stems, roots and leaves
– The vascular tissues transport substances in
plants.
– There are two types of vascular tissues: Xylem and
phloem.
– Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts
absorbed by the roots up the stems and to the
leaves. In woody plants, the xylem tissue also
provides mechanical support to the plant.
– Phloem transports organic substances from
the leaves down to the storage organs and from the
storage organs such as the roots up to the growing
regions such as the buds.
– Vascular tissues are found in the roots, stems and
leaves of a plant

42
The stem
- The stem has an epidermal layer that helps Maintain the shape of the
stem.
– In young plants, the epidermal cells secrete a waterproof
cuticle.
– In older plants, the epidermis may be absent, and is replaced
by bark.
- Inside the epidermis is the cortex layer. The layer is made up of
collenchyma cells which provide support and flexibility to the stem.
The inner parts of the stems consist of vascular bundles and the pith
which is the central region of a stem
– The pith is used for food storage in young plants.
– The pith may be absent in older plants, making them hollow.
- In dicotyledonous plants, the vascular tissues of the stem are grouped
together to form vascular bundles
– The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around the pith.
– In each vascular bundle, xylem is found towards the inside of
the stem with the phloem on the outside. A tissue called the
cambium lies between the xylem and the phloem.
- In monocotyledonous plants, the vascular bundles are scattered
throughout the stem

43
The root
• The outermost layer is the epidermis. The epidermis of the roots
does not have waxy cuticles.
• The epidermis absorbs water and dissolved mineral ions from the
soil.
• Specialised epidermal cells grow outwards to form root hairs.
• Root hairs increase the surface area for water absorption.
• The region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder is the
cortex. The cortex is made up of parenchyma cells which store
starch grains.
• Located immediately after the cortex is a single layer of cells
called the endodermis.
• Next to the endodermis is the pericycle. The pericycle consists of
sclerenchyma tissue which provides mechanical support for the
roots.
• In the roots, the vascular tissue is located in vascular cylinder. A
vascular cylinder consists vascular tissue and the pericycle.
• The vascular tissues of roots are continuous with the vascular
tissues of stems.
• In a dicotyledonous plant, the xylem radiates from the centre of
the vascular cylinder, usually forming the shape of a star while the
phloem fill the areas between the xylem
• In a monocotyledonous plant,
(a) the vascular cylinder has a central core calk the pith.
(b) the pith contains parenchyma cells.
(c) the vascular tissues form a ring around pith, with the
xylem tissue alternating with the phloem tissue

44
The leaf
• The leaf consists of a broad portion called the lamina. The blade is connected to the stem by
a stalk called the petiole.
• Inside the petiole are the vascular tissues of xylem and phloem that are continuous with
those in the stem, root and lamina.
• The leaf blade contains leaf veins. Vascular tissues are found in the leaf veins.
• Xylem forms the upper part of a vascular bundle in the leaf while phloem forms the lower
part of the vascular bundle.
(a) The xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves.
(b) The phloem transports sucrose and other products of photosynthesis from the leaves.

Diagram of Monocot Leaf

Diagram of Dicot Leaf

Monocot Leaf Cross Section

Dicot Leaf Cross Section 45
 Phloem
• Phloem tissue is composed of four types of tubes, companion cells, parenchyma and fibres
• Organic substances such as sucrose and amino are transported along the sieve tubes of the phloem.
• The sieve tube is a cylindrical column comprising long cells arranged end to end. sieve tube is a living cell.
• When mature, it has no nucleus and its cytoplasm is pushed to the sides of the cell
• The end walls of each cell are perforated by to form sieve plates which allow subtances to pass from one
cell to another,
• Each sieve tube cell is kept alive and its function is supported by one or more companion cells.
• A companion cell is a normal cell with a nucleus and a large number of mitochondria, indicating that it has
active metabolism.
• Companion cells provide the sieve tube cells with proteins, ATP and other nutrients.
• The function of the parenchyma is to store food substances while the function of die fibres is to provide
support.

46
Xylem
• Xylem contains four types of cells:
– xylem vessels
– tracheids
– fibres (a type of sclerenchyma)
– parenchyma
• The parenchyma stores food substances while the fibres provide support to the
xylem.
• Xylem vessels and tracheids are water-conducting cells.
• They are elongated cells arranged end to end.
• During growth, the walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids are thickened with lignin
deposits,
• making them strong and impermeable so that they do not collapse under the
tension created
• by the upward pull of water during transpiration (transpirational pull).
• The lignin also prevents the entry of food substances. Hence, the cytoplasm of
these cells disintegrates, leaving a cavity in the centre of the cells. As a result,
mature xylem vessels and tracheids are hollow and dead.
• The walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids are perforated by a series of holes
called pits. The pits allow water and mineral salts to pass sideways between the
cells.
• Tracheids are longer and have a smaller diameter compared to xylem vessels.
• They are pointed at the ends. The end walls break down in the pits and this allows
water to pass from cell to cell.
• The end walls of the xylem vessels are open so that the cells join end to end to form
a long continuous hollow tube.
• This arrangement allows water to flow upwards continuously from one cell to the
next.

47
Transportation and its importance
• In plant , water is lost through a process called
transpiration.
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through
evaporation in plants.
• This loss of water is replaced by the absorption of water
from soil by the plant roots.
• Only 1 % of this water is used by plant cells for
photosynthesis and to remain turgid,
• The remaining 99% evaporates from the leaves and is lost
to the atmosphere through transpiration.
• About 90% of transpiration takes place through the stomata
of the leaves. Transpiration also takes place through the
lenticels of woody stems.
• Transpiration:-
(a) helps in the absorption and transport of water and
minerals ions from the roots to the different parts
of the plants.
(b) produces a cooling effect in plants.
(c) helps to supply water to all plant cells for metabolic
processes.
(d) helps to prevent plants from wilting by maintaining
cell turgidity.
• The continuous stream of flowing water from the roots to
leaves is called the transpiration stream.
48
The process of transpiration
• As soon as water from the soil is absorbed by the roots, the water is transported through the xylem
vessels to the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
• The process of transpiration is summarised
– The surfaces of the mesophyll cells are covered by a thin layer of water.
– Heat from the sun causes the water on the external surfaces of the mesophyll cells to evaporate,
thus saturating the air spaces in the mesophyll with water vapour.
– Outside the stomata, the air in the atmosphere is less saturated.
– This means that the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is lower than the
concentration of water vapour in the air spaces of the leaf.
– Hence, the water vapour in the air spaces evaporates and the water vapour diffuses from the
plant cells through stomata.
– The movement of air carries water vapour away from the stomata.
– The loss of water from a mesophyll cell makes the cell hypertonic to an adjacent cell.
– Water from the adjacent cell diffuses into the mesophyll cell by osmosis.
– In the same way, water continues to diffuse from the neighbouring cells into the adjacent cells.
– Eventually, water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the veins.
– A pulling force is thus created to pull water up the xylem vessels as a result of the evaporation of
water vapour from the mesophyll cells.
– This pull is called the transpirational pull.

49
The rate of transpiration
- The rate of transpiration increases with an increase in temperature, light
intensity speed or a decrease in humidity. kesan suhu keatas kadar transpirasi

a) Temperature 80
70
• An increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration. 60
50
• An increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water kadar
transpirasi
40
30
from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells. 20
10
kesan perubahan keamatan cahaya keatas kadar
• The rate of diffusion of water through the stomata also increases. 0
1 2 transpirasi
3 4 5 6 7 8

b) Light intensity suhu ( C)

80
• An increase in light intensity increases the rate of transpiration.
60
• Light stimulates the opening of the stomata. kadar
40
transpirasi
• As a result, the stomata open wider. Hence, more water vapour 20
evaporates through the stomata. 0

c) Air movement 1 2 3
kesan kelajuan angin
4
keatascahaya
5
transpirasi
6 7 8
keamatan
• As the water vapour that diffuses through the stomata accumulates near
80
the leaf surface, a faster air movement helps to remove the water 70

vapour. 60
50
kadar
• Air movement increases the concentration gradient between the water transpirasi 40
30
vapour in the leaf and that outside the leaf. This increases the 20
10
transpiration rate. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
• When the air is still, the transpiration rate decrease; or stops altogether. kesan kelembapan relatif
laju udara ke atas kadar
angin (km/j)
transpirasi
d) Relative humidity
100
• High humidity surrounding the leaves reduces the evaporation of water 80

from the stomata kadar 60

transpirasi 40
• This causes transpiration to slow down 20

• Conversely a rise in temperature lowers the relative humidity of the

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

surrounding air and this increase the rate of transpiration kelembapan relatif

50
Movement of water through the roots
• The movement of water from the roots to the leaves is assisted by
(a) root pressure
(b) capillary action
(c) transpirational pull
• Water is absorbed through the roots by osmosis.
• The gradient of water concentration which exists across the cortex creates a pushing force that results
in the inflow of water into the xylem.
• At the same time, ions from the soil are actively secreted into the xylem and this causes osmotic
pressure to increase.
• As a result, water flows continuously into the xylem. This generates a pressure known as root pressure.
• Root pressure results in an upward push of water and mineral ions into the xylem of the stem
• Root pressure can be demonstrated when a stem is cut at soil level. After some time, water can be
seen exuding from the cut surface.
– Root pressure causes an upward movement of water in plants but it is insufficient to overcome
the force of gravity to push water upwards to the maximum heights of many trees.
– The water moves too slowly to account for the rapid transport of minerals from the roots to the
leaves.
• Hence, the upward movement of water through the xylem vessels in the stems is helped by the
adhesive and cohesive properties of the water molecules.

51
Movement of water through the roots 1

1. The root hairs are surrounded

by soil particles.
2. Soil particles are usually
covered by a thin film of water.
3. The cytoplasm of root hair cells
is usually hypertonic to the
surrounding soil water.
4. This means that root cells have
a higher concentration of
solutes than the water in the
surrounding soil.
5. Hence, water enters the root
hair cells via osmosis.
6. The root hair cell is now
hypotonic to the adjacent cells.
7. Water then diffuses into the
adjacent cells
8. In this way, water moves
inwards cell until eventually it
reaches the cortex

52
Movement of water through the roots 2
• Water flows through the
cytoplasm and cell walls of the
parenchyma in the cortex until it
reaches the endodermis.
• Once it reaches the endodermal
cells, the water moves through
the cytoplasm and vacuoles
instead of the cell walls.
• This is because the endodermal
cells have special features
called the Casparian strips
which line the sides of the
endodermal cells.
• Since the Casparian strip is
impermeable to water, this
means that the water movement
through the cell walls is
blocked.
• Instead, the water moves from
the cytoplasm and the vacuole
in the endodermal cells to the
xylem vessels.

53
 Guttation
• At night, the roots of some
small plants continue to
actively transport ions and
water into the xylem.
• This causes root pressure to
increase.
• Because the transpiration rate
Guttation on a strawberry leaf is low during the night,
pressure can push water all
the way up the stem and out
of special pores called
hydathodes at the edges of
leaves.
• This natural process is called
guttation. Guttation also
occurs on cool humid
mornings when the air is too
saturated for the water
Guttation on a prayer plant droplets rate from the leaves.
54
 Movement of water through the stem
• The continuous upward movement of water through the xylem vessels in the stems can be
attributed to the adhesion and cohesion of water molecules.
• Xylem vessels are long, narrow and hollow tubes. Joined end to end, they from a continuous
column of water from the roots through the stem to the leaves.
• The narrow diameter of a xylem vessel increases the force generated by capillarity. Capillary
action holds the water column together in the capillary-sized xylem vessel.
• Capillarity, or capillary action, is the result of the cohesive and adhesive forces which enable
water to enter and move along the very narrow columns:-
(a) The water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces.
(b) The water molecules adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels by adhesive forces.
(c) The cohesion and adhesion of water molecules are due to hydrogen bonding.
• Although root pressure and capillary act not enough to carry water to the top of a tall tree,
both effects are, nonetheless, imports the water movement in plants.

55
 The regulation of transpiration by the stoma

• Transpiration is necessary for the upward movement of

water and minerals from the root to the leaves.
• However, if the rate of transpiration is faster than the rate
of absorption of water by the roots, the leaves will wilt.
• If the loss of water through transpiration is excessive, the
plant will eventually die.
• Stomata are found more abundantly on the lower
epidermis of a dicotyledonous leaf.
• Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells which
regulate gaseous exchange by opening and closing the
stoma.
• If a plant is to obtain sufficient carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, it is necessary that the stomata be open.
• However, if the stomata are open, water can be lost by
transpiration through these stomata.
• The dosing of the stomata stops transpiration and reduces
water loss but at the same time, it also prevents carbon
dioxide from entering the leaf.
• To allow the plant to photosynthesise and, at the same
time, prevent the excessive loss of water, the stomata
open in response to high light intensity and a decrease in
the levels of carbon dioxide in the air spaces of the leaf.
• In general, stomata open during the day and close at night.

56
 The mechanism of the opening of a stoma

1. During the day, light stimulates photosynthesis in the guard cells.

2. They start synthesising glucose and generate the energy required for active transport.
3. The guard cells accumulate potassium ions (K+) from adjacent cells through active
transport.
4. They become hypertonic and water enters the cells by osmosis.
5. As a result, they swell up and become turgid.
6. Since the inner cell walls of the guard cells are thicker than the outer walls, the guard
cells bend outward and the stoma opens. This is because the thinner outer wall
stretches more than the thicker inner wall

Open Stomata
Leaf epidermis with stomata and guard cells

57
 The mechanism of the closing of a stoma

At night, when photosynthesis does not take place, potassium ions exit the
guard cells and water also leaves the cells by osmosis.
The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.

Closed Stomata
Leaf epidermis with stomata and guard cells

58