Kingdom Animalia

Animal Species

Somewhere around 9 or 10 million species of animals inhabit the earth.

About 800,000 species have been identified.

Animal Phyla
Biologists recognize about 36 separate phyla within the Kingdom Animalia.

Mollusca 5%

Arthropoda 87%

Other 12%

Chordata 2% Cnidaria 1% Platyhelminthes 1% Nematoda 1% Annelida 1% Porifera 1% Echinodermata 1%

~ Characteristics ~

Multicellular
Eukaryotic with no cell walls Heterotrophs (consumers)

~ Characteristics ~

Have a nervous system to respond to their environment Locomotion relates to ability to obtain food
Most animals develop from a zygote becoming a single layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled space forming a hollow ball of cells called a gastrula.

~ Characteristics ~
All

animals are multicellular, mitochondrial heterotrophsthey have multiple cells with mitochondria and they rely on other organisms for their nourishment. Most animals ingest their food and then digest it in some kind of internal cavity.

Animal Reproduction
Most animals reproduce sexually, by means of differentiated haploid cells (eggs and sperm). Most animals are diploid, meaning that the cells of adults contain two copies of the genetic material.

Animal Sizes

Animals range in size from no more than a few cells (like the mesozoans) to organisms weighing many tons (like the blue whale).

a mesozoan

blue whale

Animal Habitats

Most animals inhabit the seas, with fewer in fresh water and even fewer on land.

Animal Cells
Animal cells, like all eukaryotic cells, have internal structures called organelles that serve specific functions for the cell. Animal cells lack the rigid cell walls that characterize plant cells.

Animal Cell Diagram

Animal Bodies
The bodies of most animals (all except sponges) are made up of cells organized into tissues. Each tissue is specialized to perform specific functions. In most animals, tissues are organized into even more specialized organs.

Animal Symmetry
The most primitive animals are asymmetrical. Cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical. Most animals are bilaterally symmetrical.

~ Developmental Characteristics ~

The gastrula is made up of three parts:

Ectoderm, a layer of cells on the outer surface of the gastrula, grows and divides developing into skin and nervous tissue.
Endoderm, a layer of cells lining the inner surface of the gastrula, develops into the lining of the animals digestive tract. Mesoderm, made up of two layers of cells lying between the ectoderm and endoderm, forms muscles, reproductive organs and circulatory vessels.

~ Developmental Characteristics ~

Animals that develop a mouth from the indented space in the gastrula are protostomes. Animals that develop an anus from the opening in the gastrula are deuterostomes.

Animal Symmetry
The most primitive animals are asymmetrical. Cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical. Most animals are bilaterally symmetrical.

~ Body Plans ~

Animals that are irregular in shape are asymmetrical.

Animals that are regular in shape are symmetrical.

~ Body Plans ~

An animal has radial symmetry if it can be divided along any plane, through a central axis, into equal halves. An animal has bilateral symmetry if it can be divided down its length into similar right and left halves forming mirror images of each other.

Radial Symmetry
applies to forms that can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through it. Animals with radial symmetry are usually sessile, free-floating, or weakly swimming.

Bilateral Symmetry

Animals with bilateral symmetery are most well-suited for directional movement.

Which figure has bilateral symmetry? Which has radial symmetry?

Radial vs. Bilateral Symmetry

3 Major Bilateral Body Plans

Acoelomates Pseudocoelomates Coelomates Each plan consists of 3 cell layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm

~ Body Plans ~

Acoelomates animals have three cell layers with a digestive tract but no body cavities.

Pseudocoelomates animals with a fluidfilled body cavity partly lined with mesoderm.
Coelomates animals with a body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm.

Acoelomates
These animals have no other cavity than the gut. They are often called the solid worms.

Pseudocoelomates
These animals have a body cavity (the pseudocoelom) which is not completely lined with mesoderm. The tube within a tube body plan. This category is also composed of mostly worms.

Coelomates
These animals have a true coelom lined with mesodermal peritoneum. Most animals are coelomate.

~ Protection and Support ~

Though not all animals have a skeleton, those that do can be divided into two groups: Those with an exoskeleton a hard, waxy coating on the outside of the body that protects internal organs, provides a framework for support, and a place for muscle attachment. Those with an endoskeleton support framework within the body that protects some organs and a brace for muscles to pull against.

~Invertebrates~

8 main phyla

No backbones
95% of all animals are in this group

~Invertebrate Phylum Porifera~

Sponges
simplest form of animal life

live in water
Do not move around no symmetry

Pores (holes) all over body

~Invertebrate Phylum Porifera~

Filter Feeders: a sponge filters particles of food from water using collar cells and then pumps the water out the osculum.

~Invertebrate Phylum Porifera~

Examples: Tube Sponge, Glass Sponge, Sea Sponge

~Invertebrate Phylum Cnidaria~

Live in water
Most have tentacles catch food with stinging cells gut for digesting

~Invertebrate Phylum Cnidaria~

2 different shapes Medusa - like a jellyfish Polyp - like a hydra

~Invertebrate Phylum Cnidaria~

Examples Jellyfish, Hydra, sea anemones, and corals

~Invertebrate Phylum Platyhelminthes ~

Flatworms Flat, ribbon-like body Live in water or are parasites

bilateral symmetry

~Invertebrate Phylum Platyhelminthes ~

Examples: Planaria
eyespots detect light

food and waste go in and out the same opening

~Invertebrate Phylum Platyhelminthes ~

Examples: Tapeworm Parasite that lives in intestines of host absorbing food

~Invertebrate Phylum Platyhelminthes ~

Examples: Fluke
parasite

lives inside of host

~Invertebrate Phylum Nematoda ~

Roundworms Round, tubular body

small or microscopic
bilateral symmetry have both a mouth and anus Live in water or are parasites

~Invertebrate Phylum Nematoda ~

Examples: Hookworm

Trichinella

~Invertebrate Phylum Mollusca ~

Soft bodies Hard Shells

Live on land or in water

have a circulatory system and a complex nervous system. Important food source for humans

~Invertebrate Phylum Mollusca ~

Class Gastropoda
snails and slugs may have 1 shell

stomach-footed move on stomach

~Invertebrate Phylum Mollusca ~

Class Bivalves
2 shells hinged together clams, oysters, scallops and mussels

~Invertebrate Phylum Mollusca ~

Class Cephalopods

squids and octopuses

internal mantel

~Invertebrate Phylum Annelida ~

Segemented worms
Body divided into segments (sections) Live in water or underground have a nervous and circulatory system

~Invertebrate Phylum Annelida ~

Class Earthworms eat soil and breakdown organic matter, wastes provide nutrients to soil

~Invertebrate Phylum Annelida ~

Class bristleworms

~Invertebrate Phylum Annelida ~

Class

leeches

Parasites that feed on blood of other animals

~Invertebrate Phylum Echinodermata ~

Hard, spiny skin Live in salt water

Radial symmetry
name means spiney skinned endoskeleton

~Invertebrate Phylum Echinodermata ~

Examples: seastar, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~

Body divided into sections/segments Exoskeleton Jointed legs

well developed nervous system

largest group of organisms on earth

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~

3 subphylums:
Classified into classes according to the number of legs, eyes and antennae they have.

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~

Subphylum Chilicerata is divided into 3 classes Arachnida spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites Merostomata horseshoe crabs

Pycnogonida sea spiders

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata

Class

Arachnida

no antennae 4 pairs of legs

2 body regions - cephalothorax & abdomen spiders, scorpions, mites & ticks

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata

Class

Merostomata

Horseshoe crabs Ancient group of species Changed little over 350 million years Aquatic, mostly found on Atlantic & gulf coasts of United States.

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata

Class

Pycnogonida

Sea spider

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum - Crustacea

5 Classes Aquatic ones have gills

2 antennae 2 body regions or segmented

Shrimp, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, isopods

Many species taste delicious in butter

 Subphylum

Uniramia: 3 classes

Class Insecta (insects) Class Chilopoda (Centipedes)

Class Diplopoda (Millipedes)

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia

Class

Insecta

no antennae 3 pairs of legs

2 body regions - head, thorax & abdomen

grasshoppers, ants, butterflies, bees

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia

Class

Diplopoda

Millipedes

segmented animals
Have 2 pairs of legs per segment Primarily herbivores & decomposers

~Invertebrate Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia

Class

Chiopoda

Centipedes Usually terrestrial carnivores Have 1 pair of antennae Are often poisonous, using modified front claws to immobilize prey

Phylum Chordata
Members of the Phylum Chordata include animals with which students are most likely familiar. Included in the phylum are the fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians and beasts like ourselves

Structural Characteristics
(1) a notochord, (2) a pharyngeal gill slits, (3) postanal tail, and (4) a hollow dorsal nerve cord. These attributes are always found in the larval forms or early embryo (although they may be absent in the adult).

Subphylum Urochordates
Urochordates have a notochord that extends from just behind the head to the tail (rather than from head to tail; Urochordata means "tail-cord"). There are three classes within this subphylum: Ascidiacea, Thaliacea, and Larvacea.

Class Ascidiacea
Adult ascidians (commonly called "sea squirts") are sessile inhabitants of the intertidal zone. Depending on the species, they may be either solitary or colonial and most are monoecious. All are filter feeders. Water with suspended plankton is drawn through an incurrent siphon into the pharynx Organic particulates are strained from the water by the pharyngeal gill slits and trapped in mucus at the base of the pharynx.

Class Ascidiacea

Ciliary movements carry the food-mucus mixture to the stomach where digestion begins. The filtered water, on the other hand, passes from the pharynx to the atrium and out the excurrent siphon (the intestine also empties near the excurrent siphon). A body wall (or mantle) lines the body cavity and aids in respiration. The outer surface of the animal is covered by a tough tunic (or test; the presence of the tunic furnishes another common name for sea squirts: the "tunicates"). While the tunic of most species is opaque, that of Ecteinascidia is transparent (allowing easy observation of their internal structure).

Class Ascidiacea

Internal organs of an adult ascidian (sea squirt). Large arrows show water flow through the animal; small arrows, the path food trapped by the pharyngeal gill slits takes through the animal.

Class Thaliacea
Thaliaceans are odd, barrel-shaped things commonly known as "salps". They are surrounded by circular muscle bands and both ends of their cylindrical body are open. Contractions of the circular muscles make the body pulsate; drawing water in the incurrent siphon and forcing it out the excurrent. This endows them both with a form of jet propulsion and a mechanism for filter-feeding (suspended food is removed from the water by the pharyngeal gill slits).

Class Larvacea
Larvacians superficially resemble ascidian larvae and are the most specialized of the urochordates. They build a peculiar "mobile home" within which they travel throughout their lives (sort of a pelagic Winnebago). The thin walls of their mobile homes afford them little protection from predators (or the ear-splitting heavy metal music of their neighbors), but serve instead to collect and funnel water through their bodies. Like adult ascidians, pharyngeal gill slits are used for feeding. The similarity between ascidian larvae and adult larvacians suggests they may be neotenous urochordates (e.g. the larval forms have attained sexual maturity without loss of larval structures, such as the tail).

Subphylum Cephalochordates

Lancelets are common bottom-dwelling forms that possess all four chordate characteristics (a notochord, dorsal tail, etc). They dig into the sand and lie with their anterior end protruding from the burrow. Water with food is pumped past the oral tentacles (buccal cirri) and into the pharynx. The cirri strain out large particles and also have a sensory function. Food is separated from the in-coming water by the action of the pharyngeal gill slits (that also aid in respiration). The filtered water then passes into a cavity (atrium) and out the atriopore. The remainder of the digestive system consists of a tubular intestine with a ventral outpocketing (digestive caecum). Although lancelets are most often seen in their burrows, they can swim and posses several adaptations for their active lifestyle.

Subphylum Cephalochordates

Unlike the urochordates, for example, the notochord extends along the entire length of their body. This structure imparts rigidity to their body and permits more coordinated swimming movements. The muscles (myonemes) are <-shaped and run the length of the animal. The segmental arrangement of the myonemes facilitates the lateral movements used during swimming. A long dorsal fin, a posterior caudal fin, and the short ventral fin are supported by fibrous fin rays to increase their effectiveness during locomotion.

Subphylum Cephalochordates

Whole mount of the lancelet Branchiostoma (amphioxus). The inset shows a cross section through the pharynx.

Subphylum Vertebrata
Members of the Subphylum Vertebrata differ from the urochordates and cephalochordates in having the notochord replaced by a vertebral column composed of bone and/or cartilage. The vertebral column, along with the cranium, limb girdles, and limbs, make up the endoskeleton. This internal skeleton is an adaptation for efficient locomotion, as was the notochord.

Class Agnatha

Agnaths are primitive fishes with a fibrous skeleton and an eel-like body. They lack a jaw as well as the scales and paired fins we usually associate with fish. Many species are parasitic (they attach to the outer surface of a fish with their sucker-like mouth). Rasping teeth (arranged in a whorl) cut into the host. The lamprey then sucks blood from the wound (a fish hickey?). When it is finished its bloodmeal, the fish is released. The injured fish usually dies from blood loss or infection. Although partially under control, the marine lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) has had a devastating effect on the fishing industry in the Great Lakes region. Note the single median nostril at the anterior end (between the eyes) and the seven pairs of gill apertures (making it look somewhat like an old Buick). While the lamprey may be either marine or freshwater, hagfish are exclusively marine. Unlike the lamprey, they are scavengers and are never parasitic. A hagfish's eyes are degenerate and its mouth is surrounded by eight tentacles. There may be five to 15 pairs of gill apertures, depending on the species.

Ammocoete larva (Lamprey). Ammocoete larvae share many characteristics with their invertebrate ancestors.

Class AGNATHA
90 species a possibly paraphyletic group of jawless fishes, including the first vertebrates Living forms are elongate, scaleless, slimy parasites and scavengers - include
Myxinoidea: the hagfish Petromyzontia: lampreys, parasitic fish that suck nutrients from circulatory system of host fish

Subphylum Vertebrata, Gnathostomes, Class Placodermi

Gnathostomes
vertebrates with jaws that are modified gill supports includes the cartilaginous fish, bony fish, and tetrapods

Class CHONDRICHTHYES
950 species the cartilaginous fish Subclass Elasmobranchii---sharks, rays, skates Subclass Holocephali---ratfish (chimaeras)

Chondrichthyes

GNATHOSTOMATA

Characteristics
internal jaws (palatoquadrate, Meckel's cartilage) are present. paired appendages (paired pectoral and pelvic fins) supported by an internal skeleton provide more efficient locomotion three semicircular canals teeth - modified dermal scales more proficient predators than the jawless fish

Taxa
the jawed vertebrates include the extinct ,armored Placoderms, the cartilaginous fish, and the bony fish (including the tetrapods). Phylogenetic relationships of the jawed fishes

Characteristics
internal skeleton is composed of cartilage, which may be prismaticly calcified placoid scales ( a bone-like tissue is present at base of placoid scales) second gill arch (hyoid) involved in jaw suspension swim bladder or lung absent; have oil filled liver to provide neutral buoyancy [sharks are slightly negatively buoyant-will sink] claspers (modified pelvic fins) present in males [internal fertilization] persistent notochord intestine with spiral valve ventral mouth replacement teeth rows

Taxa
living chondrichthyans include sharks, skates, rays, and the ratfish. approximately 815 species

Subclass Elasmobranchii
Superorder NEOSELACHII the dominant Mesozoic and Cenozoic elasmobranchs sharks, skates, rays carnivores and scavengers; largest forms are filter feeders

Characteristics

advanced forms with hyostylic jaw support (hyomandibular is a mobile connection between braincase and palatoquadrate; postorbital connection lost). Mouth frequently opens ventrally. placoid scales are modified to form teeth 5-7 pairs of gill slits with separate external openings and a spiracle vertebral centra strongly calcified; notochord constricted except intervertebrally enlarged nasal capsules: chemoreception. sensitive to one part in 10 billion; widely spaced nostrils in hammerheads may increase sensitivity for locating prey neuromast organs: mechanoreceptors Ampullae of Lorenzini electroreception for detection of prey, possibly for navigation heterocercal tail (may or may not provide lift)

ORDER SQUALOMORPHA

characteristic also includes cookie-cutter sharks fin spines present anal fin absent spiracle large body rounded

Squalus, the spiny dogfish, is

ORDER GALEOMORPHA
includes nurse, tiger, blue, white sharks, etc., and basking shark, megamouth, and active sharks, fusiform bodies spiracle small or absent; mainly predaceous high brain size to body ratio

ORDER BATOIDEA - skates and rays

most diverse elasmobranchs: 476 extant species dorsoventrally-flattened bottom dwellers large pectoral fins; dorsal fins reduced to absent; caudal fin reduced large dorsal spiracle external gill openings are on the ventral side of the body; water (for breathing) is taken through the large spiracle on the dorsal side teeth usually flattened and united to form a pavement for crushing mollusks; also feed on crustaceans, and occasionally, fish.

SUBCLASS HOLOCEPHALI
Characteristics :
gills close behind braincase (primitive) jaw support autostylic (holostylic) dentition a small number of large, continuously growing tooth plates fin structures similar to sharks

Characteristics

Fleshy operculum covers four gill slits Skin naked; placoid denticles present primitively, absent in Recent forms No spiracle flattened, grinding teeth; eat seaweed, mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, and other small fish; rabbit fish has nipping teeth tail a narrow whip in recent genera claspers on pelvic fins and forehead recent forms marine

Class OSTEICHTHYES

27,000 species bony fishes skeleton contains bone single external gill opening covered with operculum swim bladder or lung

Subclass Actinopterygii ray-finned fish most fish (most vertebrates)

Subclass Sarcopterygii fleshy-finned fishes lungfish and coelacanth fleshy finned fish gave rise to amphibians in the Devonian

Class OSTEICHTHYES

Class AMPHIBIA
5,500 species Amphibians today include salamanders, toads and frogs (the Lissamphibia) Paleozoic amphibians gave rise to the amniotes

Class AMPHIBIA

Order Gymnophiona (Apoda)---Caecilians elongate bodies, limbless, scales in annular folds of skin Order Caudata (Urodela)---salamanders tailed, usually with two pairs of limbs Order Anura (Salienta)---frogs and toads tailless, elongate hindlimbs, head and trunk fused

SUBCLASS LISSAMPHIBIA

Pseudotriton montanus, the Gulf Coast mud salamander

Derived Characteristics

single element vertebral centrum bicusped, pedicellate teeth (uncalcified zone at base) skull table bones reduced moist, scaleless (liss = smooth), vascular skin for respiration mucous glands keep the skin moist poison glands are present in the skin

Other Characteristics

Ectotherms Amphibians shed eggs in water for external fertilization (not fully adapted to land) Eggs first evolve as aquatic larvae with external gills, then undergo metamorphosis to emerge from water as adults They have thin skin (needed gas exchange), thus in danger of desiccation if removed from a moist/wet environment Amphibians gave rise to amniotes during the Pennsylvanian Period All living amphibians are carnivorous; will eat anything they catch; no morphological specializations related to diet. Amphibian populations are undergoing dramatic declines, which has been attributed to ultraviolet radiation, environmental toxins, etc. Parasites have been identified as the cause of deformities in frogs.

Classification
The 5500 species of amphibians are grouped into 3 orders: Salamanders (order Caudata or Urodela) Frogs and toads (order Anura or Salientia) The secretive, earthworm-like tropical caecilians (order Gymnophiona or Apoda) - limbless amphibians.

ORDER URODELA [CAUDATA]

Ambystoma tigrinum

Characters
least specialized of all living amphibians elongate body simple primitive limbs, set at right angles to body; most have 4 limbs but a few aquatic species have only 2 limbs. locomotion similar to that of primitive tetrapods--lateral bending (fishlike) plus leg movement aquatic, semi-aquatic, terrestrial paedomorphosis is common in aquatic salamanders terrestrial salamanders live in moist places under stones and rotten logs, usually not far from water

Diet
Most salamanders are carnivorous preying on worms, small arthropods, and small mollusks; most eat only things that are moving. food is rich in proteins; therefore, they do not store much fat or glycogen

Size
Most of them are small. The common North America salamanders are less than 15 cm long. Some aquatic species are rather large. Cryptobranchus (hell bender) is 60 cm; The Japanese giant salamander reaches lengths > 1.5 meters.

Respiration
all salamanders hatch with external gills, but during development, they are lost in all except aquatic forms or in some species which do not undergo complete metamorphosis. most terrestrial salamanders have welldeveloped, but simple lungs. salamanders lack ribs amphibians use positive pressure from hypobranchial apparatus of buccal pump to force air into lungs

Cutaneous respiration
The skin contains an extensive vascular network of capillaries which allow for gas exchange to take place just below the epidermis. Cutaneous respiration is facilitated by pumping air in and out of the mouth where further respiratory gas exchange can take place. The buccal (mouth) cavity has a highly vascularized membrane system that supplements cutaneous respiration in lungless, gill-less salamanders

Family Plethodontidae

Plethodon glutinosus, Northern Slimy Salamander

Characteristic
265 species of lungless aquatic and terrestrial salamanders lungs were lost in forms inhabiting cool, swift running streams; disadvantage of too much buoyancy Small size of terrestrial species high surface/volume ratio provides adequate surface for gaseous exchange to take place across the skin. absence of lung and hypobranchial apparatus leaves room for a large protrusible tongue; especially well-developed in the bolitoglossines

Breeding

some aquatic salamanders (Cryptobranchidae, Hynobiidae, possibly Sirenidae) use external fertilization Most salamanders use internal fertilization. The female picks up a packet of sperm (spermatophore [fig 10-141]) usually deposited by the male on the substrate. aquatic species lay their fertilized eggs in small, group-like clusters in the water. Larvae have external gills and a fin-like tail Terrestrial species lay masses of eggs under logs or in holes of soft dirt. Many species remain near eggs to guard them. direct development--bypass the aquatic larval stage and hatch as miniature adults. most complex life cycle in some American newts. Often have a terrestrial stage (toxic red eft stage) interposed between the aquatic larvae and the secondarily aquatic, breeding adults (e.g., Notophthalmus viridescens: Family Salamandridae)

ORDER ANURA
Frogs and toads 27 families [table 10.3] and 4900 species of tailless amphibians cosmopolitan (except Antarctica) Jurassic - Recent

Characters
specializations for jumping [fig 10-8] long hind limbs and toes

proximal bones of tarsus elongate.

Pelvic girdle enlarged, strengthened and anchored to vertebral column ilium elongate the caudal vertebra are fused into a solid rod, the urostyle Vertebral column short and inflexible [9 or fewer (usually 5) pre-sacral vertebrae]--lack a visible neck ribs very reduced, usually fused to the vertebrae

Habits and Habitats

Body form and Ecological specializations

locomotor modes [fig 10-8]: forelimb length vs. hind limb length in walkers, hoppers, burrowers, jumpers, and swimmers body form reflects specializations for different habitats [fig 10-8] "Frog" refers to several families of mainly aquatic anurans with aquatic specializations such as webbing on the feet The term toad is used rather loosely to refer to frogs and toads that tend to spend more of their life cycle in terrestrial habitats. "Toad" refers to several families of terrestrial anurans. Toads differ from frogs in that toads have
shorter fore- and hind limbs, stout, compact bodies, thicker skin usually, skin is covered with prominent "warts" or "bumps (overall rough appearance and texture) etc. little or no webbing on feet

Size
The largest frog is the West African Gigantorana goliath. > 30 cm body length, weighs 7.5 pounds; has been known to eat rats and even ducks. The smallest frog recorded is approx. 1 cm long (smaller than a dime); found in Cuba. Largest American frog is the bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) (20 cm body length) poison glands in non-sedentary frogs many have sticky tongues that can be flipped out

Defense:

Feeding

Reproduction
The typical frog life cycle: amplexus for hours to days external fertilization masses of fertilized eggs in the water hatching limbless, gill-bearing tadpole larvae: feed and grow transformation (metamorphosis) hind legs appear and gradually lengthen. The tail shortens; larval teeth are lost; gills are replaced by lungs. Eyelids develop and forelegs emerge. In a matter of weeks or less the aquatic tadpoles has completed its metamorphosis to an adult frog. internal fertilization in some via cloacae--Ascaphis truei and others that lay eggs on land

Other
arboreal frogs eggs laid over water-tadpoles drop into water [Centrolenella] eggs in a nest of foam that floats on the water [Physalaemus] tadpoles carried by adult--male Rhinoderma darwini [Darwin's frog] pick up eggs carry tadpoles in vocal pouch tadpoles of poison dart frogs carried on back of adult male [Phylobates] or female [Colostheus]; in pouch on back of female Flectnotus [marsupial frog] Hemiphractus a hylid carries eggs on its back Pipa [Surinam toad]: fertilized eggs sink into brooding pouches in the softened skin of female tadpoles are carried in stomach of Australian Rheobatrachus tree frog eggs in bromeliads Males of two microhylid species transport their offspring on their backs. "They travel up to 55 meters over nine days, dropping the fully formed baby frogs -these frogs dont go through a tadpole stage - at different spots along the journey. This behavior may avoid inbreeding and create less competition for the next generation."

Classification

Ranidae - frogs
Rana berlandieri

Most abundant and successful of the frogs are of the genus Rana (Gr. for frog). Found all over the temperate and tropical regions of the world except New Zealand, many islands, and southern regions of South America. Usually found near water. Some, such as the wood frog spend most of their time in on damp forest floors and often some distance from water. It returns to water only to breed in early spring. Bullfrogs and green frogs are usually found in or near permanent water or swampy regions.

Hylidae - the tree frogs

Toe pads for climbing mucous glands produce sticky, long chain polymers--wet adhesion enables frogs to stick to surfaces

Hyla cinerea

Bufonidae - toads
paratoid gland present Poisonous skin secretion, some species can kill dogs e.g., Bufo alvarius

Bufo marinus

Pelobatidae
Spadefoot toads

Scaphiopus

Other families

Rhinophrynidae

Rhynophrynus dorsalis Mexican burrowing frog

Weak hind legs, doesn't hop Burrows in termite nests, rotten logs Usually collected at ponds when breeding. Male calls while floating in middle of pond

Pipidae

Dendrobatidae

Africa and S. America, Aquatic examples: Suriname toad Pipa pipa, African clawed frog, Xenopus Arrow-poison frog--Neotropical

Ex. Dendrobates tinctorius Dye frog

ORDER GYMNOPHIONA [APODA]

caecilians
members of an obscure order called Gymnophiona (naked snake). 160 species of worm-like amphibians. Found in tropical forests of South America (primarily), Africa, and south-east Asia.

Ichthyophis bannanicus

Characters

limbless
an early Jurassic caecilian possesses limbs

mostly burrowing species, some aquatic solidly built skull long, slender--body up to 200 vertebra small dermal scales no postanal tail many species are blind as adults, have the name caecilians (caecus, blind). Because they are burrowers, the eyes are replaced by specialized sensory tentacles on the snout. Very rarely seen due to their burrowing nature.

Class REPTILIA
7,800 species Turtles, crocodiles, lizards, snakes, etc. Reptile lungs are efficient, don't use skin for gas exchange They have internal fertilization and produce eggs with leathery shells

Class REPTILIA
Reptiles have acquired several advances over amphibians that have allowed them to move successfully into terrestrial habitats. Their skin, for example, is more heavily cornified and is protected with surface scales that are impervious to water. To help conserve water the kidney produces a concentrated urine, and the volume has been reduced. Since reptiles have internal fertilization, water isn't even needed for mating. The eggs have undergone extensive modification compared to those of amphibians and are termed cleidoic eggs.

Class REPTILIA

Reptiles have three extraembryonic membranes the chorion, amnion and allantois. The amnion is a fluid-filled sac that encloses the embryo, providing it with its own private pond. The chorion and allantois are vascularized membranes that lie against the shell. The allantois develops as an outgrowth of the hindgut. It helps with respiration and serves as a Johnny-on-the-spot for the developing embryo. The chorion is the outermost extraembryonic membrane and is mainly concerned with respiration. These membranes are surrounded by albumen, and then a shell. The egg shell is porous and either leathery or limy. This adaptation allows respiration through the shell without losing too much water. On the down side, most reptile eggs become waterlogged if exposed to water for too long. Females usually lay their eggs, but some lizards and snakes retain them for internal development.

Class REPTILIA
To keep up with their greater activity there are changes in reptiles' pelvic and pectoral girdles to make them strong Some even have four-chambered hearts with separate pulmonary and systemic circulations. Respiration is by lungs, although cloacal respiration can act as an auxiliary system in some aquatic turtles. Many reptiles adjust their body temperature by behavioral mechanisms, basking in the sun to warm up in the morning and then seeking shelter in the heat of the day. Physiological mechanisms sometimes aid in this behavioral thermoregulation: Chromatophores can open to darken the skin so that it absorbs more heat, and blood flow to the skin can be regulated.

Class REPTILIA
The first reptiles were amphibian-like beasts called cotylosaurs appeared during the Carboniferous period (about 350 million years before present). Turtles are most similar to the cotylosaurs (although the latter did not have shells) and are placed in the same subclass. A turtles body is covered on the dorsal surface by a bony shell with horny plates

Class REPTILIA
Alligators, have jaws that house teeth that are all alike, albeit of differing size (homodont dentition). The conical the codont teeth are set in sockets called alveoli in the premaxillae, and dentary (lower jaw). The alligator skull has a large number of cranial bones and in this respect is more primitive than that of the frog (even though reptiles evolved after the amphibians).

Class REPTILIA

A reptile's scales are very different in structure from that of fish. The outer layer of skin is the thick stratum corneum (thick layers of dead, keratin-filled cornified cells). These cells are organized into horny scales covering the entire outer surface. The scales are important in protecting the animal from abrasion and drying out. The plates making up the shell of turtles are composed of a similar material. Hinges between the scales permit flexible movements. The lower epidermis, like that of amphibians, is the stratum germinativum (it produces the upper cell layers). Unlike the amphibians, there are few skin glands.

Class AVES
9,100 species Characteristics

Birds have internal fertilization and lay hard-shelled eggs Endotherms Nearly every anatomical feature is related to ability to fly
The only animals with feathers (modified reptilian scales)

Many types of birds exist:

flightless; web footed; divers; waders; vegetarian; etc

Class AVES
Birds are endothermic (warm-blooded) vertebrates with feathers. Their anterior limbs are modified as wings for flight, while the posterior pair is adapted for walking, swimming, or perching. Other adaptations related to flight include changes in the skeletal, respiratory, circulatory, reproductive, digestive, and excretory systems.

Class AVES
The first birds arose from saurishian dinosaurs during the Jurassic (about 180 million years before present). Today's birds still retain many reptilian characteristics such as similarities in behavior, skull structure, and scales on their beak, legs, and feet. Birds have been incredibly successful (among the chordates, they are outnumbered only by the bony fish).

Subclass Archaeornithes
The Archaeornithes, are represented by a single extinct species (Archaeopteryx). The first Archaeopteryx specimen was discovered during the nineteenth century. It was about the size of a crow, had a long reptilian tail, thecodont teeth, and a reptilian skull with no beak. It had three fingers on its wings, each bearing a claw. Because of its small sternum and flexible trunk, it's unlikely that Archaeopteryx was a strong flier. Its characteristics are so reptilian that, were it not for the feathers fossilized with the specimen, it would not be recognizable as a potential ancestor of birds. Protoavis, a smaller animal discovered in 1986, may be more closely allied to today's birds).

Subclass Archaeornithes

Archaeopteryx

Subclass Neornithes

All birds other than Archaeopteryx belong to the subclass Neornithes. While most neornithes fly, ratites can not. Examples of living ratites include emus, rheas, ostriches, and penguins. Neornithes that fly are carinates (they have a large carina). The largest living carinate is the Andean condor, with a wing span of about 3 meters. The condor, by no means, represents a limit on size for birds (the giant Teratorn had a wingspan of 8 meters).

Modifications Related to Flight.

The long bones are thin and slender. Likewise, the skull is thin. Teeth have been lost and replaced by a light beak. Many bones lost their central marrow and are now hollow and porous. The reduction in the number of bones of the wrist. The sternum has broadened into a wide keel to provide a base for attachment of wing musculature. Many bones are fused. Those of the pelvis are fused to the lower vertebrae of the back, while the ribs are joined to the vertebrae and sternum. This consolidation insures that birds don't have to expend muscular energy to hold their lower body straight during flight.

Subclass Neornithes

Subclass Neornithes
The lungs are directly attached to the ribs and have air sacs that extend into the bones. Both of these attributes raise ventilation efficiency to keep up with their increased metabolic needs. They have no urinary bladder and a short large intestine (to cut back on weight). The cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum show a dramatic increase in size over the reptiles to permit more complex behaviors and coordination needed for flight.

Avian Feathers and Skin

Feathers are cornified epidermal appendages that are probably related to scales. They are used for thermoregulation, communication, and as a flight surface. There are three varieties of feathers: contour feathers, down feathers (plumules), and plumes (hairlike feathers). The main axis of the feather is divided into a hollow calamus that inserts into the animal's skin at a feather follicle and a rachis flattened is attached to the shaft and makes up the main flight surface. The vane is built from numerous barbules. The barbules attach to hooklets on adjacent barbs to hold together the vanelike structure of the feather. If the barbs become separated, the bird zips them back together by preening. Contour feathers that form the flight surfaces are called flight feathers. Down feathers provide excellent insulation because numerous fluffy barbs at the quill tip trap insulating air.

Avian Feathers and Skin

Feather development begins when mesodermal tissue in the dermis produces a pimply feather primordium. The feather primordium elongates toward the epidermis, forming a feather follicle. Cells at the base of the follicle then begin to grow forming a feather sheath within which is formed an immature feather. The feather sheath and immature feather together make up a pin feather. Eventually, the feather sheath splits open and releases the barbs, and then the remainder of the feather.

Class MAMMALIA
4,800 species mammals evolved in the late Triassic, the time dinosaurs first appeared. mammals diversified greatly following the extinction of the dinosaurs during the Cenozoic

Characteristics
hair - protection from heat loss mammary glands differentiated teeth endotherms; 4 chambered heart; etc. Greatest size range
pigmy shrew to blue whale

Characteristics

Members of the class Mammalia possess both hair and mammary glands. Their integument is complex and has many glands used for a variety of purposes: thermoregulation and excretion (sweat glands), communication (scent glands), care of the hair and skin (sebaceous oil glands), and for feeding of the young (mammary glands). They are thermic and have relatively high rates of metabolism. In keeping with their higher metabolic rates, adaptations for efficient feeding include heterodont teeth in most species and a secondarypalate to separate the respiratory and food passages (so they can breathe and chew at the same time). The circulatory systems are efficient, and they have a four-chambered heart with separate pulmonary and systemic circulations. Their brains are highly developed, fertilization is internal, and most have placental attachment of the young.

Subclass Theria
Most living mammals belong to the subclass Theria (placental mammals) and are thought to have developed from mammallike reptiles called therapsids during the Mesozoic (about 180 million years ago). The placentals are extremely diverse, occupying all habitable environments on earth.

Subclass Prototheria

Members of the subclass Prototheria are so different from placentals that they may have developed from a different theriapsid species. They are represented today by only a single order, Monotreme (egg-laying mammals). Today's monotremes are found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The only living monotremes are the duckbill platypus and echidna (spiny anteater). Monotremes have several primitive characteristics: They lack teeth as adults, the braincase and other skeletal elements are reptilian in structure, they have a single ventral orifice (connected to a cloaca), and they are oviparous. Although they are homothermous, their body temperature is maintained only a few degrees above the ambient temperature. In these ways they are reptilian in their structure, reproduction, and physiology. Nonetheless, monotremes do possess hair and feed their young milk, so they do qualify as mammals.

Subclass Theria, Infraclass Metatheria

Metatherians are the marsupial mammals (kangaroos, koalas, opossums, Tasmanian wolves, and wombats). Like the placental mammals (superclass Eutheria), marsupials start their lives attached by a placenta to the maternal circulation. Although the embryo and maternal circulation do not mix, the developing young receive nutrients and discharge metabolic wastes through the placenta. Marsupial placental development, however is short-lived; and following their birth the embryos attach to a nipple within a skin pouch (marsupium) where they continue their development. The most common American opossum is Didelphis virginiana. They are nocturnal in their habits and are often found in association with humans.

Subclass Theria, Infraclass Eutheria

Eutherian mammals, including yourself, are placental beasts and belong to the infraclass Eutheria. Among the lower vertebrates the teeth are simple in structure and usually similar in shape. Mammals, however, have teeth adapted to different food-processing functions. These teeth are classified from front to back as incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. Incisors are usually small spindle-shaped teeth used for cutting, chopping, and picking up food (although in rodents they are greatly enlarged). Canines are sharp conical teeth useful for seizing prey and tearing flesh. The development of canine teeth varies with the diet of the animal. They are usually poorly developed or absent in herbivores and are especially well developed in carnivorous mammals. Sometimes there is variation according to sex (males having larger canines), while in other species they grow to become premolars and molars are collectively known as cheek teeth. Premolars are often used to puncture food while the broader molars are involved in crushing and grinding food. Depending on the diet, the premolar teeth may broaden to look much like the molars. The occlusion between the upper and lower cheek teeth forms efficient surfaces between which food can be cut, crushed, or torn according to their structure.

Subclass Theria, Infraclass Eutheria

The number and arrangement of the teeth are important in the classification of mammals. A convenient way of expressing this arrangement is through a dental formula that depicts the number of teeth in each half jaw. For the primitive condition, the upper jaw has three incisors, one canine (fang), four premolars, and three molars. The lower jaw has the same arrangement. Because of this ancestral arrangement, mammals usually have 44 teeth at most. However, because of secondary modifications some species have no teeth (monotremes) while others have several hundred (dolphins). This primitive arrangement is modified to one degree or another amomg and within the various orders. Among the carnivores, all teeth are represented. Using dogs as an example, they differ from the primitive condition only in a missing molar on the upper jaw. For carnivores, the important aspect of these dental formulae is that all four types of teeth are represented. The structure of the teeth is also important in classification of mammals, but this aspect of taxonomy is more complicated and will not be covered here. It may seem terribly superficial to classify mammalian orders based on tooth structure, but since the teeth are related to feeding, they are representative of other differences in anatomy and physiology.

Order Carnivora
Carnivores are predatory mammals with clawed feet and teeth adapted for cutting flesh although some carnivores have secondarily taken on an omnivorous habit). Carnivores are among the brightest and strongest of animals. Examples of carnivores include badgers, bears, foxes, otters, raccoons, skunks, weasels,and wolves.

Order Primates
Members of this order are mainly arboreal (living in trees), although some, like ourselves, have moved to the ground. They have five digits on their front and hind legs, usually adorned with nails, rather than claws. They include such beasts as apes, gibbons, lemurs, monkeys, tree shrews, and humans.

Order Rodentia

This is a very successful order since nearly half of living mammalian species are classified as rodents. All rodents have large chisellike incisors and lack canines and premolars. Examples of rodents include beavers, lemmings, marmots, mice, prairie dogs, rats, squirrels, and voles. The dental structure of all rodents is similar. They have large incisors, and the major differences are in the grinding surfaces of the molars. The lower incisors continuously grow and must be trimmed by gnawing.

Order Lagomorpha
Rabbits, hares, and pikas, with their chisellike teeth, look superficially like rodents (with which they were once classified). Rabbits and hares differ only slightly in their anatomy, but while rabbits are born blind, naked, and helpless, hares are furred and active. Rabbits tend to live in burrows, while hares spend most of their time above ground. While Peter is most certainly a rabbit, Bugs appears to be a hare (not a bunny).

Order Insectivora
These are the insect-eating mammals such as shrews, moles, and hedgehogs (they also will feed on any small beast including crustaceans and worms). They have long snouts and primitive dentition. Most are terrestrial and spend much of their lives underground, although a few are semiaquatic. Insectivores are thought to be the most primitive of the present-day mammalian orders.

Order Chiroptera

Chiropterans (bats) are the only true flying mammals (flying squirrels, lemurs, and phalangers only glide). Their forelimbs are modified with elongated second to fifth digits to support a web of skin that extends over the forearm to the body, hindlegs, and tail. The thumb is short and armed with a claw that they can use to grasp and climb on various surfaces. Most are nocturnal insectivores, but some feed on fruit or flower nectar ("flying foxes"). All navigate by echolocation, but few are "blind as a bat" (their vision is usually as good as a rat's). And yes, Virginia, there are vampire bats. The upper incisors of vampire bats are large and sharp. These are used along with the canines to bite a triangular patch of skin from their prey so they can suck out the blood.

Order Artiodactyla
This order contains medium-to large-sized eventoed mammals (most have two toes). Many have horns, and their toes are protected by a hoof. Most are ruminants (they chew the cud to aid in digestion of cellulose). The order includes beasts such as antelopes, camels, deer, elk, goats, hippos, llamas, oxen, sheep, and swine.

Order Perissodactyla
This order is composed of the odd-toed mammals such as horses, zebras, and rhinos. They have one to three toes covered with a hoof. Their teeth are well adapted for chewing.

Order Edentata
Members of this order include anteaters, armadillos, sloths and armadillos. Armadillos are armor-plated on their head and dorsal body surfaces and when threatened, most can roll into a tight ball to protect their soft belly. They are burrowers that hunt by night for small vertebrates, earthworms, and other soil organisms.

Order Pholidota
order Pholidota (scaly anteaters or pangolins found in tropical Africa and Asia). Pangolins have horny scales covering their bodies and forelimbs armed with powerful claws, which they use for digging into termite mounds.

order Pinnipedia
Sea lions, seals, and walruses belong to the order Pinnipedia. All pinnipeds are marine creatures feeding mainly on fish.

Order Cetacea
Other marine mammals include the order Cetacea. Among the cetaceans, toothed whales (dolphins, porpoises, and sperm whales) survive by feeding on fish, squid, and the like, while the larger baleen whales (right, blue, and gray whales) filter plankton from the water.

Seals Birds

Amphibians

Mammals

Fish Rodents

Terimakasih
Primates Whales and Dolphins

Marsupials

Reptiles