Data Model

Data Modeling and Database Design
Team
Minder Chen, Ph.D.
Team number Specialty Customer Customer Customer Customer Customer Customer Customer number name address activity telephone fax
member
is a member of
Division Division number Division name Division address

belongs to
Employee Employee number First name Last name Employee function Employee salary
subcontract
staffed by
is assigned to
Project Project number Project name Project label Start date End date
Task
Task name Task cost
contains
Rationales for Data Modeling

Data is the foundation of modern information systems enabled by data base technologies. Data in an organization exist and can be described independently of how these data are used. Data should be managed as a corporate-wide resource. The types of data used in an organization do not change very much. Data have certain inherent properties which lead to correct structuring. If we structure data according to their inherent properties, the structure (i.e., data models) will be stable.
Minder Chen, 1993~2006 Data Modeling - 2 -
History of Data Modeling

Importance of Entity-Relationship Modeling Technique
Database Data modeling and enterprise-wide data Data quality Data updating and accessing tools and procedure Data sharing culture
ER modeling technique was first developed by Peter Chen in 1976

A conceptual/logical data modeling tool A user-oriented approach A graphic-based method
ER modeling technique is the major data modeling method in Information Engineering and is widely supported by most of CASE tools. Data modeling is the foundation of most database-centered transaction processing systems and data warehouse systems
C/S Development Methodology

SDLC C/S Architecture User Interface Conceptual Analysis Work Flow rules=> Logical Design Form Sequences performance => Physical Design Forms, Screens
Application Logic
Process Flow
Object Interaction Model Database Schema
Programs, Procedures
Information & Data Base
Data Model
Tables, Indexes
Source: David Vaskevitch, Client/Server Strategies, IDG Books, 1993. Data Modeling - 4 Minder Chen, 1993~2006
Client/Server Application Development Methodology

Requirements
Information & Data Base
Processes Behavior
Workflow User Interface
Architecture
Application Design and Development

Source: David Vaskevitch, Client/Server Strategies, IDG Books, 1993. Minder Chen, 1993~2006 Data Modeling - 5 -
Multiple Perspectives
We use this data
ONE BUSINESS
We do these things
DATA
ACTIVITY
HIRE EMPLOYEE
PAY EMPLOYEE
EMPLOYEE PROMOTE EMPLOYEE
...... ...... .... ....
Minder Chen, 1993~2006
FIRE EMPLOYEE
Data Modeling - 6 -
Data Model (Entity Relationship Diagram)

Member Order placed by; places is enrolled under; applies to
Member
Agreement
sells; is sold on
generates; generated by
established by; established
Product
is featured in; features
Promotion
sponsors; is sponsored by
Club
Data Modeling - 7 -
Entity Types
Definition:
An entity is an object or event, real or abstract, about which we would like to store data. Entity is the abbreviation of entity type. It represent a set of entity instances which can be described by the same set of attribute types. The value of the same attribute for each entity instance may be different.
Identifying Entity Types

What information is required by the business? Things that are of interest to the business that need to be remembered in order to manage and track them. Things belong to the same entity type have common characteristics.
Naming Entity Types

The name of each entity is in singular form
a noun an adjective + a noun a noun + a noun => (noun string) an adjective + a noun + a noun
Examples
Customer, Customer Order, Product, Hourly Employee, Project, Department, Unfilled Customer Order
Be clear and concise Avoid abbreviation Be consist with users terminology Identify synonyms
Customer Product Supplier Teacher Client Merchandise Vendor Faculty
Use one name as the official name and document others as aliases
Exercise: Entity Type Naming
Courses Department Customer Order PO
Data Modeling - 10 -
Properties of Entity Types Name Description Identifier Properties: Estimated number (Max., Min., Average) of entity instances Expected growth rate of entity instances Subject Area in which the Entity Type resides Attributes that describe the Entity Types Examples of entity type instances
Definition of an Entity Type A poor definition of Customer: Anyone that buys something from the company.
Can employees be a customer? Can a leaser be a customer? If the company sold a subsidiary to another company, does the new owner consider a customer?
Good definition should be:

Compatible Precise Concise Clear Complete
Good Definition
Compatible
Customer: An ORGANIZATION that purchase PRODUCTs for personal use. Distributor: An ORGANIZATION that purchase PRODUCTs for resale.
Precision:
With appropriate qualifiers Example: An ORGANIZATION is considered to have purchase a PRODUCT when we receive a valid PURCHASE ORDER from it.
Complete
ORGANIZATION, PRODUCT, PURCHASE ORDER need to be defined.
Concise and Clear

Use modular definition
Example of Entity Type Descriptions
Entity Type
Customer Product Raw-material Supplier Buyer
Description
Information about all persons or organizations who purchases
All goods manufactured and sold Components used to manufacture Products. Vendors of Raw Materials.
Company personnel responsible for purchasing Raw-Materials from Suppliers
Entity Type and Entity Instance (Occurrence) Entity Types Vendor Employee Course Department Entity Instance ABC Co. John Smith Intro. to IE
Marketing Department
Exercise: Entity Types or Entity Instances?
Maryland Organization Unit Customer President Bill Clinton Department of Commerce Address
Finding Entity Types Interviews with users JAD workshops Business forms Reports Computer files using reverse engineering Operation manuals
Where to Look for an Entity Type?

Tangible or Intangible Things
The nouns that are used to describe the problem domain will often correspond to the major Entity Types of the system, at least at a high level. Examples: Product, Sensor, and Employee, Department, and Sale Office.
Resources
Any resources that an organization needs to manage should be represented as an Entity Type. Information assists the efficient and effective use of other resources through improved decision. Examples: Inventory, Machine, Bank Account, and Customer.
Roles Played
Roles can be played by persons or organizational units. Examples: Customers, Managers, and Account representatives.
Events
Events are incidents that occur at points in time. An event often involved an interaction between two Entity Types or an action that changes the status of an Entity Type. Examples: Sale, Delivery, and Registration of a motor vehicle.
BIAIT:

Business Information Analysis and Integration Technique
Analysis of Orders Ordered entities can be a thing, a space, or a skill. View the order from supplier side. If an organization receives no orders, it has no reason for existing. An organization unit can receive multiple types of orders. 4 questions about the Supplier:
Billing (Cash)? Deliver Late (Immediate)? Profile customer? Negotiate price (Fixed)?
3 questions about the Ordered Entity:

Rented (Sold)? Tracked? Made to order (Stock)?
Source: Carlson, W. M., "BIAIT: Business Information Analysis and Integration Technique The New Horizon," Data Base, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1979, pp. 3-9.
Criteria for Evaluating an Entity Type

Need to be remembered by the information system in order to be functional. Can be operated on: CREATE, READ, UPDATE, DELETE. Has a set of operations/services that always apply to change the status of each occurrence of an Entity Type. Carry a set of attributes that always apply to describe each occurrence of an Entity Type. Have at least one relationship with other entity type. Exist more than one entity occurrence (instance) in an Entity Type. Have at least a unique identifier. Domain-based requirements: Something that the system must have in order to operate. These may be clearly specified in the problem description or known from subject matter experts.
Entity Relationship Modeling and Diagramming
Relationships Entity Relationship Diagramming Notation Attributes Identifiers Partitioning and Entity Subtypes
Relationship (Type)
Definition
A Relationship Type is an association among Entity Types. It indicates that there is a business relationship between these Entity Types. Relationship Membership is the participation of an Entity Type in a Relationship. In IE, a Relationship Type can involve only two Entity Types (binary relationship). Some other modeling techniques allow n-ary relationships.
Examples
CUSTOMER places ORDER ORDER is placed by CUSTOMER EMPLOYEE works on PROJECT PROJECT has project member EMPLOYEE
Paring (Relationship Instance)

Relationship paring is a pair of Entity Instances of two Entity Types associated by a Relationship Type between these two Entity Types. Entity Types
Student
Entity Instance
Student#1 Student#2
Course#A Course#B Course#C Course#D
Course
Relationship
Student takes Course
Relationship Paring
Student#1 takes Course#A Student#1 takes Course#B Student#1 takes Course#D Student#2 takes Course#A Student#2 takes Course#C Student#2 takes Course#D
Relationship Instances Grouping
Definition: A collection of pairings of a Relationship Membership in which an Entity Instance is involved. Examples:
Student#1 takes Course#A, #B, and #D Student#2 takes Course#A, #C, and #D Course#A is taken by Student#1 and Student#2
Relationship Cardinality
One-to-One
1:1
E1
E2
One-to-Many
1:M
E1
E2
Many-to-Many
M:N
E1
E2
Relationship Cardinality
The number of Entity Instances involved in the Relationship Instances Grouping in a Relationship Type. Three Forms of Cardinality
1. One-to-one (1:1) DEPARTMENT has MANAGER Each DEPARTMENT has one and only one MANAGER Each MANAGER manages one and only one DEPARTMENT 2. One-to-many (1:m) CUSTOMER places ORDER Each CUSTOMER sometimes (95%) place one or more ORDERs Each ORDER always is placed by exactly one CUSTOMER 3. Many-to-many (m:n) INSTRUCTOR teaches COURSE Each INSTRUCTION teaches zero, one, or more COURSEs Each COURSE is taught by one or more INSTRUCTORs
Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD): Notations

Graphical Notations
Cardinality indicator
relationship-description
zero one many
Entity-X
reversed-relation-description
Entity-Y
min max Translate into two structured statements
Each Entity-X relationship-description cardinality-indicator (one-or-many) Entity-Y
Each Entity-Y reversed-relationship-description (zero-or-one) Entity-Y

Example
is-managed-by Department manages
Manager
Optionality of Relationship Memberships Whether all entity instances of both entity types need to participate in relationship pairing. Optionality:
Mandatory Optional
Example:
CUSTOMER membership is optional ORDER membership is mandatory
places
CUSTOMER
is placed by
ORDER
Relationship Statements
Cardinality indicator
Graphical Notations one one or more
places
CUSTOMER
is placed by
ORDER
zero (sometimes) one (always)
Optionality indicator
Each Entity X optionality relationship cardinality Entity Y Each CUSTOMER sometimes places one or more ORDER. Each ORDER always is placed by one CUSTOMER.
Defining Relationships Name Description Property

Cardinality volumes Optionality percentage: % of Entity Type X's instances pairing with Entity Type's Y's instances Transferability: A relationship is transferable if an entity instance can change its pairing within the same relationship.
TRANSFERABLE: An EMPLOYEE can change to a different DEPARTMENT. NON-TRANSFERABLE: An ORDER cannot be transferred to another CUSTOMER.
ERD: More Examples

(a) Customer places belongs-to is-contained-in contains manages Employee is-managed-by works-for Project Order
Product
(b)
Parallel Relationship
has-project-members (c) is-consists-of
Part
contained-in
Involuted or Looped Relationship
Identifying Relationships
Association between entity types Entity types that are used on the same forms or documents. A description in a business document that has a verb that relates two entity types
has consists of uses
Attributes
Definition
Characteristics that could be used to describe Entity Types and Relationship Types. However, in IE, relationship types are not allowed to have attributes.
Naming Conventions:
Names that have business meaning Don't use abbreviation or possessive case, e.g., PN and Customer's name Don't include entity type name because IEF will prefix the attribute name with entity type name automatically Use standard format: Entity Type Name (Qualifiers) Domain Name Customer Name Employee Starting Date
Examples
Customer has customer name, address, and telephone number Product has quantity-on-hand, weight, volume, color, and name. Employee has SSN, salary, and birthday. Employee-works-for-project has percentage-of-time, starting-date.
Attributes: Notations
Student
Student ID Student Name
Employee Employee number First name Last name Employee function Employee salary
Birth date Student ID Course no. enrollment

Birth date
Student studentID
name phone
Student(Student ID, Student Name, Birth Date)

Finding Attributes: Attributes are identified progressively during BAA phase. Data Analysis Activity Analysis Interaction Analysis Current Systems Analysis
Attribute Value
Definition
Attribute Values are instances of Attributes used to describe specific Entity Instances
Examples
Customer Number: 011334 Customer Name: Minder Chen State: VA Order Total: $23,000 Sale tax: $250
An attribute of an entity type should have only one value at any given time. (No repeating group) Avoid using complex coding scheme for an attribute. For example: PART Number: X-XXX-XXX
Part Type
Material
Sequence Number
Type & Instance

OBJECT TYPE Entity Type Entity Entity Type Relationship (Type) Attribute (Type) OCCURRENCE Entity Instance Entity Instance Entity Pairing (Relationship Instance) (Attribute) Value
Attribute Source Categories

Basic
Definition: An Attribute Value that cannot be deduced or calculated. Examples: Student name and Birthday
Derived
Definition: The Attribute Value can be calculated or deduced from relationship Groupings or from the values of other Attributes. The value of a Derived Attribute changes constantly. Examples: Student Age, Account Balance, Number of courses taken.
Designed
Definition: The Attribute is created to overcome the system constraints. The value of a Designed Attribute does not change. Examples: Student ID, Course number.
Properties of Attributes
Name Description Attribute Source Category: Basic, Derived, Designed Domain or data type: Text, Number, Date, Time, Timestamp Optionality: Mandatory or optional Length and/or precision Permitted Values (Legal Values)
Ranges A set of values (Code Table)
Default value or algorithm
Tools such as PowerBuilder has additional properties for tables columns called extended attributes
Validation Rule Editing Format Reporting Format
Column Heading Form Label Code Table

Data Modeling Case Study

The following is description by a pharmacy owner:
"Jack Smith catches a cold and what he suspects is a flu virus. He makes an appointment with his family doctor who confirm his diagnosis. The doctor prescribes an antibiotic and nasal decongestant tablets. Jack leaves the doctor's office and drives to his local drug store. The pharmacist packages the medication and types the labels for pill bottles. The label includes information about customer, the doctor who prescribe the drug, the drug (e.g., Penicillin), when to take it, and how often, the content of the pill (250 mg), the number of refills, expiration date, and the date of purchase."
Please develop a data model for the entities and relationships within the context of pharmacy. Also develop a definition for "prescription". List all your underlying assumptions used in your data models.
Data Modeling Process

List entity types Create relationships
Pick a central entity type Work around the neighborhood
Add entity types to the diagram Build relationships among them
Determine cardinalities of relationships
Find/Create identifiers for each entity type Add attributes to the entity type in the data model Analyze and revise the data model
Classifying Attribute and Partitioning

An Entity Subtype A collection of Entities of the same type to which a narrower definition and additional Attributes and Relationships apply. An Entity Subtype inherits (retains) all the Attributes and Relationships of its parent Entity Type. Classifying Attribute: An attribute of the Base Entity Type whose values partition the Entity Instances into Subtypes. Partitioning: A basis for subdividing one entity type into subtypes. The process of dividing an Entity Type into several Subtypes based on a Classifying Attribute is called Partitioning. The Classifying Attribute is recorded as a property of the Partitioning and it appears on the diagram.
Normalization
A data base is a model or an image of the reality. Logical Data Base Design is a process of modeling and capturing the end-user views of an application domain and synthesis them into a data base structure. Normalization is a logical data base design method. The basis for normalization is the functional dependencies among attributes in a table.
SQL Terminology
Column
Product Table
p_no 101 Row 201 202 product_name Color TV B&W TV PC quantity 24 10 5 price 500 250 2000
Create a table in SQL
CREATE TABLES (p_no CHAR(5) NOT NULL, product_name CHAR(20), quantity SMALLINT, price DECIMAL(10, 2));
SQL Terminology
Set Theory Relation Attribute Relational DB Table Column File File Data item Example Product_table Product_name
Tuple
Domain
Row
Pool of legal values
Record
Data type
Product_101's info.
DATE
SQL Principles
The result of a SQL query is always a table (View or Dynamic Table) Rows in a table are considered to be unordered Dominate the markets since late 1980s Can be used in interactive programming environments Provide both data definition language (DDL) and data manipulation language (DML) A non-procedural language Can be embedded in 3GL:
Embedded SQL Dynamic SQL
SQL: Data Definition Language (DDL)

CREATE DROP TABLE VIEW INDEX DATABASE
ALTER
TABLE
SQL: Introduction
A relational data base is perceived by its users as a collection of tables E. F. Codd 1969
Dominate the markets since late 1980s

Strengths:
Simplicity End-user orientation Standardization Value-based instead of pointer-based Endorsed by major computer companies
Most CASE products support the development of relational data base centered applications
SQL: Data Manipulation Language (DML)

SELECT UPDATE INSERT DELETE p_no 101 201 202 product_name Color TV B&W TV PC quantity 24 10 5 price 500 250 2000
The Generic Form of the SELECT Statement

SELECT [DISTINCT] column(s) FROM table(s) [WHERE conditions] [GROUP BY column(s) [HAVING condition]] [ORDER BY column(s)]
Database Table
The following code retrieves only the Last Name and the Employee ID where the Employee ID is greater than 5. The records are retrieved in descending order.
SELECT LastName, EmployeeID FROM Employees WHERE EmployeeID > 5 ORDER BY EmployeeID DESC
WHERE Clause
WHERE: Use the Where clause to limit the selection. The # symbol indicates literal date values. SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE LastName = "Smith" SELECT Employees.LastName FROM Employees WHERE Employees.State in ('NY','WA') SELECT OrderID FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #01/01/93# AND #01/31/93#
Keys
A key, also called identifier, is an Attribute or a Composite Attribute that can be used to uniquely identify an instance of an entity type. Examples: Entity Type Key
Warehouse Product Student Ship Stock of Product Warehouse Number Product Number Student ID or SSN Name and Port of Registration Product Number and Warehouse No.
Types of Key
Primary Key: A unique key is an attribute or a set of attributes that has been used by the DBMS as the identifier of a table. Candidate (Alternative) Key: An attribute or a set of attributes that could have been used as the primary key of a table. Secondary (Index) Key: An attribute or a set of attributes that has been used to construct the data retrieval index. Concatenated (Combined or Composite) Key: A set of attributes that has been used as the key. Foreign Key: An attribute or a set of attributes that is used as the primary key in another table.
Purposes of Normalization
Avoid maintenance problems such as Update . Insert: There may be no place to insert new information. Delete: Some important information will be lost by deletion. Update: Inconsistency may occur because of the existence of data redundancy. Provide maximum flexibility to meet future information needs by keeping tables corresponding to object types in their simplified forms.
A Common Sense Approach to Normalization
Don't rush to put all the information in one table. Create a table to correspond to a class of a simple object type that should exist by itself, i.e., "one fact in one place." Include common fields (links) as ways of joining information from several related tables. Avoid redundancy by using links to retrieve data from related tables.
Normalization Theory
Normalization is a process of systematically breaking a complex table into simpler ones. It is built around the concept of normal forms. A relation is in a particular normal form if it satisfies a specific set of constraints such as dependencies among attributes in the relation. For x is an integer and x > 1, if a relation is in x-NF than it is in (x-1)-NF. Higher order normal forms are usually more desirable than lower order normal forms. Normalization process usually starts from complex relations which are usually drawn from some existing documents such as business forms.
A Business Form
An Informal Example of Normalization

A CUSTOMER ORDER contains the following information:
OrderNo OrderDate CustNo CustAddress CustType Tax Total one or more than one Order-Item which has
ProductNo Description Quantity UnitPrice Subtotal.
Solution
Unnormalized table
(OrderNo, OrderDate, CustNo, CustAddress, CustType, Tax, Total, 1{ProductNo, Description, Quantity, UnitPrice,Subtotal}n)
Remove repeating group
1st NF
Remove partial FD
(OrderNo, ProductNo, Description, Quantity, UnitPrice, Subtotal)
2nd NF
Remove transitive FD
(OrderNo, OrderDate, CustNo, CustAddress, CustType, Tax, Total)
(OrderNo, ProductNo, Quantity, UnitPrice, Subtotal) (ProductNo, Description, UnitPrice)
3rd NF
(OrderNo, OrderDate, CustNo, Tax, Total) (CustNo, CustAddress, CustType)

Unnormalized Form
A relation that has multi-valued attributes (repeating groups). Normalization Process: Remove Multi-value Attributes If an unnormalized relation R has a primary key K and a multi-value attribute M, the normalization process is:
The multi-value attribute M should be removed from R. A new relation will be created with (K,M) as the primary key of the relation. There may be some other attributes associated with this new relation. R will then be at least in 1NF.
Example: An Employee relation has an attribute language-spoken. For some employees there may be more than one language that they can speak.
EMP (employeeID, empName, empAddress, (language1, language2, ...)) EMP (employeeID, empName, empAddress) EMP-LANGUAGE (employeeID, language, skillLevel)
How Do You Remove the Repeating Groups?

CREATE TABLE MEM_CONDITION ( MEMBER# VARCHAR2(12) CASE# VARCHAR2(16) DIAG_ARRAY_1 VARCHAR2(6) DIAG_ARRAY_2 VARCHAR2(6) DIAG_ARRAY_3 VARCHAR2(6) DIAG_ARRAY_4 VARCHAR2(6) DIAG_ARRAY_5 VARCHAR2(6) DIAG_EX_ARRAY_1 VARCHAR2(2) DIAG_EX_ARRAY_2 VARCHAR2(2) DIAG_EX_ARRAY_3 VARCHAR2(2) DIAG_EX_ARRAY_4 VARCHAR2(2) DIAG_EX_ARRAY_5 VARCHAR2(2) DRUG_ARRAY_1 VARCHAR2(12) DRUG_ARRAY_2 VARCHAR2(12) DRUG_ARRAY_3 VARCHAR2(12) DRUG_ARRAY_4 VARCHAR2(12) DRUG_ARRAY_5 VARCHAR2(12) LC_ARRAY_1 VARCHAR2(4) LC_ARRAY_2 VARCHAR2(4) LC_ARRAY_3 VARCHAR2(4) LC_ARRAY_4 VARCHAR2(4) LC_ARRAY_5 VARCHAR2(4) MEM_REVIEW VARCHAR2(4) OP# VARCHAR2(4) Minder Chen, 1993~2006 NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL,
Functional Dependency
Notation: R.X => R.Y Definition: Attribute Y of Relation R is functionally dependent on the Attribute X of Relation R when there is each value of R.Y associated with no more than one value of R.X. R.X and R.Y may be composite attributes. Description:
R .Y is functionally dependent on R.X R.X functionally determines R.Y
Full & Partial Dependency
R.A => R.B If B is not functionally dependent on any subset of A (other than A itself), B is fully dependent on A in R. If B is functionally dependent on a subset of A (other than A itself), B is partially dependent on A in R.
First Normal Form (1NF)

A relation R is in the first normal form (1NF) if and only if all attributes of any tuple in R contain only atomic values. Normalization Process:
Remove Partial Functional Dependencies If R is in 1NF and has a composite primary key (K1,K2), an attribute P is functionally dependent on K1 (K1 => P) (i.e., P is partially dependent on (K1, K2)), the normalization process is: The attribute P should be removed from R and a new relation will be created with K1 as the primary key and P as a non-key attribute. A relation that is in 1NF and not in 2NF must have a composite primary key.
Example
Supplier-Part relation has attributes supplier#, part#, qty, city, distance, where (supplier#, part#) is the key. City is partially dependent on supplier#. SUPPLIER-PART (supplier#, part#, qty, city, distance) SUPPLIER-PART (supplier#, Part#, qty) SUPPLIER (supplier#, city, distance)
Non-loss Decomposition
Normalization is a reduction (decomposition) process that replaces a relation by suitable projections. Each of the projection is a new relation that is in a further normalized form than the original relation. The collection of projections is equivalent to the original relation. The original relation can always be recovered by taking the natural join of these projections. Any information that can be derived from the original relation can also be derived from the further normalized relations. The converse is not true. The process is reversible because no information is loss in the reduction process.
Transitive Dependency
In a relation R, if R.A =>R.B and R.B => R.C then attribute C is said to be transitively dependent on attribute A.
Second Normal Form (2NF)

A relation R is in the second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the primary key. Normalization Process: Remove Transitive Dependencies If R is in 2NF and has two non-key attributes A1 and A2 where A2 is functionally dependent on A1 (A1 => A2). The A2 should be removed from R and a new relation will be created with A1 as the primary key and A2 as a non-key attribute. Example
Supplier relation has attributes supplier#, city, distance, where supplier# is the key and distance to a supplier can be determined by the city of the supplier. SUPPLIER (supplier#, city, distance, quality_level) SUPPLIER (Supplier#, city, quality_level) CITY-DISTANCE (city, distance)
Third Normal Form (3NF)

A relation R is in the third normal form (3NF) if and only if the non-key attributes (if there is any) are fully dependent on the primary key of R (i.e., R is in its 2NF) and are mutually independent. Heuristic to Check Whether a Relation Is in 3NF
All the non-key attributes (which are not multi-value attributes) are dependent on the (primary) key, the whole key, and nothing but the key.
Explanation
All the non-key attributes have atomic value and dependent on the key (1NF - No multi-value attribute), the whole key, (2NF - No Partially Functional Dependency) and nothing but the key (3NF - No Transitive Functional Dependency)
Normalization Process
Unnormalized Form
A
1NF
H
2NF
remove repeating groups
remove partial dependencies

3NF 3NF
remove transitive dependencies

3NF
G F H
3NF
D
B C D
Normalization: Pros and Cons

Pros
Reduce data redundancy & space required Enhance data consistency
Enforce data integrity

Reduce update cost Provide maximum flexibility in responding ad hoc queries
Cons
Many complex queries will be slower because joins have to be performed to retrieve relevant data from several normalized tables Programmers/users have to understand the underlying data model of an database application in order to perform proper joins among several tables The formulation of multiple-level queries is a nontrivial task.
Join Two Tables

SELECT Categories.CategoryName, Products.ProductName FROM Categories, Products WHERE Products.CategoryID = Categories.Category ID
Tables in Relational DB
Identify Primary Keys and Foreign Keys in the following Tables!!!
ID
ID
ID
Join Tables
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.CustID, LastName, Firstname, Orders.ItemID, Description FROM Customer, Orders, Inventory WHERE Customer.CustID = Orders.CustID AND Orders.ItemID = Inventory.ItemID ORDER BY CustID, Orders.ItemID
ID
ID
Foreign Keys & Primary Keys in a Sample Access Database
An Example of a Complex Query

Please list name and phone number of customers who have ordered product number 007. SELECT customer_name, customer_phone FROM customer WHERE customer_number IN SELECT customer_number FROM order WHERE order_no IN SELECT order_no FROM orderItem WHERE product_number = 007
Denormalization
The process of intentionally backing away from normalization to improve performance. Denormalization should not be the first choice for improving performance and should only be used for fine tuning a database for a particular application. Requirements
Prior normalization Knowledge of data usage
Benefits
Minimize the need for joins Reduce number of tables Reduce number of foreign keys Reduce number of indices How often are two data items needed together How many rows are involved How volatile is denormalized data How important is visibility of data to users What is the minimum response time and frequency of an query
Knowledge of Data Usage
De-normalization: An Example
JOIN
R1
R2
Denormalization
R1 * R 2
Where:
R2
R1 (ProductNo, SupplierNo, Price) R2 (SupplierNo, Name, Address, Phone) R1*R2 (ProductNo, SupplierNo, Name, Address, Phone, Price)
R2 should be kept to prevent data loss. Data redundancy in R1*R2 and R2 could cause potential data inconsistency problems if the redundant data in these two tables are not maintained properly.
Data Model Refinement and Transformation

Data Model Refinement Associative Entity Type Removing Many-to-Many Relationships Keys Transformation to Relational Databases
Refinement of a Data Model: Analysis and Simplification
Isolated Entity Type Solitary Entity Type One-to-One Relationship Redundant Relationship Multi-Valued Attributes Attribute with Attributes Many-to-Many Relationship
Isolated Entity Type

An Entity Type that does not participate in a Relationship. Since every Entity Type should participate in at least one Relationship, there exist two alternatives: Identify a relevant Relationship Remove the Entity Type from the model
Solitary Entity Type

An Entity Type that has only one Entity Instance. Examples: Computer Center, Sales Tax, and Current Order Number. Solitary Entity Types may be too restrictive. Alternatives:
Introduce another Entity Type with a wider scope. Computer Center ==> Organization Unit Define it as an Attribute of an Entity Type. Sales Tax ==> Sales Tax of Order Define it as a data element in an parameter table. A parameter table has only one row. Current Order Number ==> Current Order Number of Parameter Table
Evaluate One-to-One Relationship

It may be an unnecessary relationship between two Entity Types if they have the same attribute and relationships (i.e., they are identical). It should be then combined into one Entity Type.
Maybe Incorrect
Purchase Request
becomes has request Purchase Order
Correct
Purchase Order
Redundant Relationship
Is this relationship redundant? has ordered
customer
places
product
is ordered by
ORDERS
is placed by contains has
order
is part of
order item
Differences in timing of an entity type in its life cycle:

Implemented as separate entity types or use subtypes Use value of attributes or additional attributes to differentiate them
Redundant Relationship
Redundant Product is held as Stock contains Non-redundant is held in stocks
Warehouse
holds
Product
is contained in contains
Order Line
is contained in contains
Order
is placed by is contained in is contained in contains places Customer
contains
Order History
Multi-Valued Attribute
Definition
An Attribute that may have more than one value at a time is called a multi-valued attribute.
Solution:
Create an Entity Type for the multi-valued attribute

Languages spoken by an Employee Employee(ID, Name, Phone, Languages) Employee(111, John Smith, 201-999-8888, (English, Chinese))
Example:
Employee(ID, Name, Phone) Employee(111, John Smith, 210-999-8888) Employee_language(ID, Language) Employee_language(111, English) Employee_language(111, Chinese)
Attribute with Attributes

An Attribute that can be described by other Attributes is called an attribute with attributes. Example:
College Degree by an Employee (John Smith has a College Degree in Computer Sciences from George Mason University)
Solution:
Create an Entity Type to avoid an Attribute with Attributes. Add new attributes to the existing Entity Type.
Associative Entity Type

An Associative Entity Type is an Entity Type whose existence is meaningful only if it participates in several (>=2) Relationship Types at the same time. Associative Entity Types are often introduced to represent additional information in many-tomany Relationships or to decompose a many-tomany Relationship into two one-to-many Relationships. Associative Entity Types are also used to represent n-ary Relationships in a binary data model.
Remove Many-to-Many Relationship

Given contains
Order
belongs-to
Product
Why?
There is no place to attach Attributes that are required to describe a many-to-many Relationship. It is difficult to translate many-to-many Relationships into relational tables automatically.
How?
A many-to-many relationship can be decomposed into two one-to-many Relationships by creating an Associative Entity Type between the existing two Entity Types.
contains has
Order
belongs to
Order Line
is contained in
Product
Remove Many-to-Many Relationships: Exercises

Remove the many-to-many relationship from the following ER diagrams
(a) Product has-sources offers Supplier
(b)
Student
takes
is-taken-by
Course
(c)
consists-of
Part
is-contained-in
Bills of Material
Part consists-of A
is-a-component-in
2
E D
1
F
Product Structure
Product-Structure(Parent Part No, Child Part No, Quantity) A A B B C C

B C D E D F
2 1 1 3 2 2
Using an Associative Entity Type to Represent an N-ary Relationship
involved in product usage Product
involved in product usage Project
involved in product usage Supplier
Product Usage is an Associative Entity Type for a 3-ary Relationship.
is used in Product Product Usage
uses Project
supplies Supplier
Translate Data Models to Relational Tables

Given
contains has
Order
belongs to
Order Line
is contained in
Product
Key: Order# Attribute: Order date Customer ID Sale Person ID
Key: Order#+Product# Attribute: Quantity Unit Price
Key: Product# Attribute: Description Qty-on-hand Unit Price
Relational Tables Created
CREATE TABLE ORDER (OrderNo CHAR(10) OrderDate DATE, CustomerID CHAR(10), SalePersonID CHAR(10));
NOT NULL,
Transformation of Data Models to Relational Database Tables
The entire, or part of, a data (entity-relationship) model can be translated into a normalized database design. Objects Created
At most one relational database One or more relations (tables) Data structures (DDL) representing the elements (attributes) and the primary key of each relation Data type of each data elements
Heuristics of Transformation
A table is created for each Entity Type in the ER diagram. A table is created for each multi-valued attribute. Relationship Types are implemented as tables or as foreign keys in other tables. Many-to-many relationship types are translated into tables. Foreign keys are used for implementing one-to-one and one-to-many Relationship Types. For one-to-many Relationship Types, the foreign key is placed in the table that represents the Entity Type on the "many" end of the Relationship Type. For identifying one-to-many Relationship Types, the PK of the "one" table migrate to the "many" table as a FK and the FK is also part of the PK of the "many" table. For non-identifying one-to-many Relationship Types, the PK of the "one" table migrate to the "many" table as a FK and the FK is a non-key attribute of the "many" table.
http://www.oracle.com/tools/jdeveloper/documents/jsptwp/index.html?content.html
Auction Web Site's Data Model

dept_id = parent_id dept dept_id int parent_id int name varchar(255) description text date_changed datetime
A Data Model for an Electronic Commerce Application

dept_id = dept_id
pfid = pfid product_attribute pfid varchar(30) attribute_id tinyint attribute_index tinyint attribute_value varchar(20) pfid = pfid promo_cross pfid varchar(30) related_pfid varchar(30) description varchar(255) pfid = pfid promo_upsell pfid varchar(30) related_pfid varchar(30) description varchar(255)
pfid = pfid product_variant sku int pfid varchar(30) attribute0 tinyint attribute1 tinyint attribute2 tinyint attribute3 tinyint attribute4 tinyint
product_family pfid varchar(30) dept_id int manufacturer_id int name varchar(255) short_description varchar(255) long_description text image_filename varchar(255) intro_date datetime date_changed datetime list_price int monogramable tinyint
pfid = pfid
shopper sku = sku shopper_id char(32) order_id = order_id created datetime name varchar(235) password varchar(20) street varchar(50) city varchar(50)shopper_id = shopper_id state varchar(30) receipt zip varchar(15) order_id char(26) country varchar(20) shopper_id char(32) phone varchar(16) total int email varchar(50) status tinyint date_entered datetime date_changed datetime marshalled_receipt image shopper_id = shopper_id
receipt_item pfid varchar(30) sku int order_id char(26) row_id int quantity int adjusted_price int promo_price promo_name varchar(255) promo_type int promo_description text promo_rank int active int date_start datetime date_end datetime shopper_all int shopper_column varchar(64) shopper_op varchar(2) shopper_value varchar(64) cond_all int cond_column varchar(64) cond_op varchar(2) cond_value varchar(64) cond_basis char(1) cond_min int award_all int award_column varchar(64) award_op varchar(2) award_value varchar(64) award_max int disjoint_cond_award int disc_type char(1) disc_value realData Modeling
basket shopper_id char(32) date_changed datetime marshalled_order image
- 95 -
Attribute 0 of pfid 14 is size and the attribute value 1 is Grande and 2 is Tall and 3 is Short
Web-based Build-To-Order Application
Data Model for Build-To-Order Application

Data Model

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Data Modeling and Database Design

Minder Chen, Ph.D.

Division Division number Division name Division address

Rationales for Data Modeling

History of Data Modeling

ER modeling technique was first developed by Peter Chen in 1976

C/S Development Methodology

Object Interaction Model Database Schema

Information & Data Base

Client/Server Application Development Methodology

Information & Data Base

Workflow User Interface

Application Design and Development

EMPLOYEE PROMOTE EMPLOYEE

...... ...... .... ....

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Data Model (Entity Relationship Diagram)

established by; established

is featured in; features

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Identifying Entity Types

Naming Entity Types

Exercise: Entity Type Naming

Courses Department Customer Order PO

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Good definition should be:

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Concise and Clear

Example of Entity Type Descriptions

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Exercise: Entity Types or Entity Instances?

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Where to Look for an Entity Type?

Business Information Analysis and Integration Technique

3 questions about the Ordered Entity:

Criteria for Evaluating an Entity Type

Entity Relationship Modeling and Diagramming

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Paring (Relationship Instance)

Relationship Instances Grouping

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD): Notations

zero one many

min max Translate into two structured statements

Each Entity-X relationship-description cardinality-indicator (one-or-many) Entity-Y

Each Entity-Y reversed-relationship-description (zero-or-one) Entity-Y

is-managed-by Department manages

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Defining Relationships Name Description Property

ERD: More Examples

has-project-members (c) is-consists-of

Involuted or Looped Relationship

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Minder Chen, 1993~2006

Birth date Student ID Course no. enrollment

Student(Student ID, Student Name, Birth Date)

Type & Instance