Radio

Navigation
 Basic Methods of
Navigation
►Pilotage

►Dead Reckoning

►Radio Aids to Navigation

 Radio Navigation Aids

►VOR System
 The most commonly used radio
navigation system in the U.S..
 VOR stands for very high
frequency omnidirectional
range.
 VORs
► An individual VOR is a radio station on
the ground emitting very high
frequency signals.
► VOR use the frequencies just below
the ones used for radio communication
(108.0 to 117.95 MHz).
► Each VOR station looks like a large,
circular platform with a big, white cone
in its center.
A VOR Station
 VORs
►Visualize a VOR station as the
hub of a bicycle wheel with 360
spokes; one spoke for each
degree of a circle.
►Each “spoke” is a radio signal,
and termed a radial.
►Each radial is named for the
direction away from the VOR
station.
V
O
R
s
 VORs

►Principleof operation: a VOR

emits radials in all directions, but
we reference and use only 360 of
them.
► We really can’t navigate more
accurately than 1 degree
increments.
 VOR Signals
 Reference phase: emitted in all
directions
 Variable phase: rotates at 1800 rpm
 Airborne equipment measures phase
difference to determine aircraft
location relative to the VOR ground
station.
 Signals are in phase on magnetic
north
 “Airborne” Aircraft VOR
Equipment
► Two antennae form a “V” on vertical
stabilizer of small aircraft.
Aircraft VOR Antenna
 “Airborne” Aircraft VOR
Equipment
►A transceiver looking similar to a
communication radio is required
onboard.
COMM / NAV Radios
 “Airborne” Aircraft VOR
Equipment
► The VOR indicator display
instrument includes an OBS
(omnibearing selector) to select
the desired course, and a CDI
(course deviation indicator)
needle which indicates aircraft
position relative to the selected
course.
 VOR Indicator

Course
Deviation
Course Indicator
Card

Ambiguity
Indicator
Omnibearing
Selector
(OBS)
Off-Course
Indication dots
 “Airborne” Aircraft VOR
Equipment
► The ambiguity indicator (TO/FROM
flag) indicates whether the selected
course will take the aircraft TO or
FROM the VOR station.
► Off-course indications are measured
with dots representing course
deviation of 2 degrees/dot.
 1 dot deflection when 1 nm from the
station = 200 ft. off-course.
 Full scale deflection represents 10-12
degrees of course deviation.
 VOR Indicator

Course
Deviation
Course Indicator
Card

Ambiguity
Indicator
Omnibearing
Selector
(OBS)
Off-Course
Indication dots
 VOR Navigation
►May be used as the primary form
of navigation.
►May be used to maintain
situational awareness in
conjunction with other types of
navigation (pilotage, DR).
►May be used for lost procedures to
help re-orientate the pilot.
 VOR Navigation
► Equipment in an aircraft receives a
VOR station’s signal, and converts it
to a course indication on the
instrument panel.
► It’s a very simple system to use.
 Dial in the VOR’s frequency on the
aircraft’s navigation radio.
 Identify the Morse code signal for that
station to verify the signal and VOR.
 Twist the course selector knob, the OBS,
on the instrument panel instrument to
the desired VOR course.
 VOR Use
► Tune it, ID it, Set it!
► Tuning: Set the frequency in the transceiver
(find frequencies on aeronautical charts or in
the A/FD).
► ID: Listen to the Morse code identifier to
verify that the VOR signal is reliable.
► Set your desired course at the top of the
VOR indicator by turning the OBS.
► Choose an intercept heading that is on the
same side as the CDI needle.
► Turn the shortest direction to that intercept
heading.
 Tracking To the Station
345 “Inbound on the 165 degree radial.”

165
Tracking From the Station
345o “Outbound on the 345 degree radial.”

165o
 Off-Course Indications
345o

165o
Tracking & Bracketing
 Cone of Confusion
►The cone of confusion is an area
directly over the VOR station in
which there is no positive TO or
FROM indication.
►Only occurs for 5-10 seconds
►Station passage is marked by a
positive flip of the TO/FROM flag.
 Cone of Confusion
345

075

255

165
 Reverse Sensing
► Problem that may occur anytime the course
selected is the reciprocal of the desired
course. This occurs if you attempt to fly TO
the VOR with a FROM indication, or vice
versa.
► If you select a course opposite to the
direction you desire to fly, the CDI needle
will deflect to indicate intercepts within 90
degrees of the selected course as opposed
to the desired course.
► The VOR senses position, not heading, so
always put the course you wish to fly at the
top of the VOR display!
 Reverse Sensing
345o

165o
Cessna 172 Instrument Panel
 VOR Navigation
► Symbols on sectional and world
aeronautical charts mark the
locations of VOR stations along with
their associated radio frequencies.

►A compass rose, which is a printed

circle with incremented radial
markings in degrees, is depicted
around each VOR on sectional charts
and WACs.
Sectional Depiction
VOR Radials
 VOR, VOR/DME, VORTAC
►A VOR station provides course
guidance, but no distance information.
► A VOR / DME station provides course
guidance along with distance in
nautical miles to the station,
groundspeed, and time to the station.
► A VORTAC is a collocated VOR and
military TACAN . Civilian aircraft are
provided with the distance information
generated by the TACAN.
VOR Chart Symbols
Sectional VOR Information
A/FD
 Classes of VORs
►A VOR station may be one of
three classes, based on its
reception and altitude range
ability.
 Terminal
 Low Altitude
 High Altitude
 Classes of VORs
► Terminal VORs: Normally located on
an airport with a typical range of 25
nm and for use below 12,000 ft. AGL.
► Low Altitude VORs: Reliable up to 40
nm between 1,000 and 18,000 ft. AGL.
► High Altitude VORs: Reliable to 40
nm up to 14,500 ft. AGL, to 100 nm
between 14,500 and 18,000 ft. AGL,
and to 130 nm between 18,000 ft. AGL
and FL450.
 Service Volumes

60000
100NM
45000
18000
12000 130 NM
18000
40NM
25NM 100NM
14500
1000
1000 1000 40NM

TERMINAL LOW HIGH

 VICTOR AIRWAYS
► Federal airways, called Victor airways,
are based on VOR navigation aids.
► Victor airways are named with a “V”
plus an identifying number, as in
V111.
► They are analogous to interstate
highways, and go from VOR to VOR
via their radials.
► Victor airways are designated as
Class E airspace.
Victor Airways
 Distance Measuring
Equipment
► How does DME work?
 An aircraft’s airborne transmitter
(interrogator) sends a signal which is
received by the DME ground beacon.
 The DME ground beacon returns the
signal.
 The airborne equipment times this relay,
and converts the time to slant range
distance.
 DME is the most accurate when the
aircraft is 1 mile away from the ground
station for every 1000 ft. of altitude.
D
M
E
 DME
► Accurate up to 199 nm slant range
distance.

Slant range: 20 miles

Actual distance: 19 miles

► Airborne equipment can also display
groundspeed and time to station
► DME is collocated as part of a
VORTAC and VOR/DME stations.
 NDB Navigation
•These ground radio stations are
called NDBs (Non-Directional
Beacons).

•The equipment in an airplane

used to locate an NDB station is
called ADF (Automatic Direction
Finding) equipment.
 Non-Directional Beacon
(NDB)
► NDB is the name of the ground facility
emitting the radio signals.
► Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)
equipment is what is installed in an aircraft
including the following.
 ADF Radio
 ADF Display that shows the relative
direction of the NDB station from the
aircraft’s position.
 Two antennae on a GA aircraft as part of
the ADF equipment: a loop antenna and
a sense antenna.
ADF Radio and Display
ADF Sense Antenna
 ADF Loop Antenna
(Typically mounted on the “belly” of the
fuselage)
ADF Combined Antenna
(both the sense and the loop
antennae)
ADF Display and Radio
Receiver
 Non-Directional Beacon
(NDB)
► Emits radio signal in all directions (190-535
kHz).
► Receiver in aircraft receives signal and
indicates direction to station.
► Automatic direction finder (ADF) is
instrument which display relative bearing to
station.
► To determine the course to station, add the
relative bearing to magnetic heading to get
the magnetic bearing to the station.
 NDB
► Relative bearing
(RB) is read
clockwise off the
ADF.

► MH + RB = MB to
the NDB station.

► Ifthe total of the RB

and MH is greater
than 360O, subtract
360O.
 Relative Bearing

000 degrees 045 degrees 270 degrees

 Magnetic Bearing
► Add the relative bearing to the
magnetic heading to determine the
magnetic bearing to the station (MH +
RB = MB)
► If the MB is greater than 360, subtract
360
► To determine the MB from the
station, take the reciprocal (+180) of
the MB to the station
 NDB
MH = 340o
MB = 270o
RB = 290o
MH = 000o NDB

Station
RB= 40o

MH = 190o
MB=040o MB = 350o
RB = 160o
Homing to an NDB Station
NDB Tracking
• NDB radio signals are
named for the direction TO
the station (opposite of VOR
radials), and called
“bearings”.

• Tracking an NDB bearing

to the station involves
correcting for the wind to
maintain a direct course to
the NDB.
Sectional Depiction
A/FD
 Limitations of NDB Signals
► Night Effect: lack of ionosphere
reduces reflection of radio waves;
reduces range of NDB signals.
► Coastal Effect: radio waves deflected
slightly as they go through different air
masses over land and water.
► Thunderstorm effect: ADF needle will
point to lightning (stronger signal than
the NDB station!).
 Limitations of NDB Signals
► Mountain Effect: radio waves deflected
off terrain may cause erroneous ADF
needle indications.
► Precipitation Static: may interfere with
reception of radio waves
► Interference from other NDB station
signals.
 NDB Service Volumes
► Compass Locator: 15 miles

► MH class: 25 miles

►H class: 50 miles

► HH class: 75 miles
End of Radio Navigation