HYDROLOGY

Unit 1 - Module 2 (Hydrological, Fluvial, Coastal and

Limestone Environments)
CONTENT
The hydrological cycle
The storm hydrograph and water balance
Drainage basin characteristics
Drainage patterns and drainage density
Mapwork
2
Concepts associated with the hydrological cycle and the river basin
Major flows and factors influencing flows within the hydrological cycle
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
3
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Describes the continuous
movement of all forms of water
(vapour, liquid and solid) on, in,
and above the Earths surface.
MAIN CONCEPTS
An area of land that is drained by a river and
its tributaries is known as a drainage basin,
and its boundary is marked by a watershed
a ridge of higher ground, beyond which any
water will drain into an adjacent basin.
The water balance of a drainage basin is an
important concept. Changes in the water
balance are shown by storm hydrographs
and river regimes.
5
A SYSTEMS APPROACH
This is a common approach in geography and the two
main examples in this topic are:
The hydrological cycle: a closed system.

6
Both consist of
transfers, stores,
inputs of water but
the hydrological
cycle is a closed
system as no gains
or losses from
outside are added to
the system.

ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/charts/waterdistribution.gif
A SYSTEMS APPROACH
The drainage basin system: an open
system.
The drainage basin system is said to be
open as both inputs and outputs of energy
and material occur.
All systems in their natural state aim to be in
a state of balance (dynamic equilibrium) as
this is when they function best.
Heavy rainfall, drought and human activity
such as deforestation can easily upset the
balance.

7
A SYSTEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
8
The Atmosphere
Channel
Flow
Groundwater
Flow
(Baseflow)
Throughflow
Surface Runoff
(Overland
Flow)
Percolation
Throughfall
Stemflow
Infiltration
Variabl
e level
(water table)
Transfer
Key:
CHANGES OVER TIME
Only during the ice ages are there noticeable
differences in the location of water storage on
the earth. During these cold cycles, there is less
water stored in the oceans and more in ice
sheets and glaciers.
It can take an individual molecule of water from
a few days to thousands of years to complete
the hydrologic cycle from ocean to atmosphere
to land to ocean again as it can be trapped in
ice for a long time.

9
WORLD WATER SUPPLY BY LOCATION
Oceans - 97.08%
Ice Sheets and Glaciers - 1.99%
Ground Water - 0.62%
Atmosphere - 0.29%
Lakes (Fresh) - 0.01%
Inland Seas and Salt Water Lakes - 0.005%
Soil Moisture - 0.004%
Rivers - 0.001%

10
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: ABOVE THE
SURFACE
Precipitation
This may be defined as water in solid or liquid form which results
from the condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere and
which accumulates in clouds and falls to the earth as rain, snow,
ice, hail or sleet.
The precipitation input is an important factor affecting how rivers
behave. Depending upon the size of the drainage basin,
precipitation totals will influence the input (the potential amount of
water which can enter a system) and the output (the eventual
streamflow).
The basic understanding is that precipitation varies over space
and time. Important precipitation factors:
1. Where and how much? (location and magnitude)
2. When and how often? (Regime/seasonality and frequency)
3. How heavy? (Intensity)
4. What type? (Form)

11
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: ABOVE THE
SURFACE
Interception
The second stage of the precipitation input to a
drainage basin system begins once the water has
arrived at the land surface.
The amount of incoming precipitation which reaches
the ground surface directly depends not only upon its
type, volume, intensity and timing, but also upon the
surface cover. This may be artificial cover, such as
roads and buildings, but is mainly natural or cultivated
vegetation.
The interruption in the arrival of precipitation at the
surface is known as interception.
12
13
THROUGHFA
LL water
drips off the
leaves and
twigs
THROUGHFLO
W - water falls
through the
spaces in the
vegetation
STEMFLOW
water trickles
along branches,
down the trunk,
etc
INTERCEPTION LOSS
water is held on the plant
and evaporates back into the
atmosphere
INFILTRATION
vegetation encourages
water to infiltrate the soil
NB The type
of vegetation
cover will
determine the
interception
characteristics
(e.g.
evergreen vs.
deciduous
forests)

DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: ABOVE THE
SURFACE
Evaporation and Transpiration
Some of the precipitation input does not
become streamflow. Instead, it is lost from the
system by the process of evaporation. This
evaporated part of the precipitation input is
returned directly to the atmosphere.
Equally important in many environments is
transpiration. Although this water has reached
and penetrated the ground surface, it has been
taken up by plants and so has not moved
through the drainage basin.

14
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: ABOVE THE
SURFACE
Evapotranspiration
Water lost from vegetation via both
evaporation and transpiration.


15
A physical process where moisture is lost
directly to the atmosphere from soil and
water surfaces due to the suns heat
Evaporation
A biological process where water is lost
from stomata pores in plant leaves
Transpiration
16
Temperature,
wind and cloud
cover affects
evaporation
rates
Evaporation
of
interception
loss
Transpiratio
n from the
stomata
Soil moisture provides a constant supply of water all year round
Evaporation from rivers and
lakes occur all year
PET the water loss that
would occur from an area if
there was a constant supply
of water to the surface and
the transpiring vegetation.
Thus, PET is the maximum
possible water loss for a
particular environment.
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: AT AND BELOW
THE SURFACE
Infiltration
Infiltration is the process whereby water
enters the soil surface.
Hydrologists usually study this water
movement by measuring the infiltration rate
(how much water is passing through in a
certain time) and infiltration capacity (the
maximum rate at which a particular soil
under specific conditions can absorb
precipitation) of the water.

17
18
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE AMOUNT OF INFILTRATION
1. Intensity of
precipitation
Rainfall of great intensity, i.e.
Downpour, is less likely to
infiltrate then low intensity
rainfall, e.g. drizzle.
2. Vegetation cover
Vegetation helps to break up
the soil, increasing air space,
which the water can infiltrate.
3. Angle of slope
Water will run off a steeper
slope more easily than a
gentle slope. The quicker the
water runs off, the less likely
it is to infiltrate
4. Nature of the soil and
rock type
The size of the soil and rock
particles, the amount of air
space and cracks affect
infiltration. A sandy soil has
larger particles and more air
spaces than a clay soil. This
encourages infiltration
5. Depth of the water
table
If the water table is near to
the surface, the soil will
become quickly saturated
and less infiltration will
occur
6. Time
If rainfall occurs over a long
period of time, infiltration will
decrease as the soil store
fills up, i.e. High antecedent
moisture conditions
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: AT AND BELOW
THE SURFACE
Throughflow
Water which does infiltrate the soil will move vertically
downwards at first.
Then movement swings progressively downslope due
to the effects of gravity, and the decrease in
infiltration capacity of the soil with increasing depth:
they have fewer spaces and cracks in the lower
horizons of the profile.
Unless the soil contains many spaces, root systems
and animal burrows, throughflow is a slow process
(between 0.01mm and 1mm per minute), however,
the water eventually arrives at the slope base.

19
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: AT AND BELOW
THE SURFACE
Percolation
Some water will continue downwards to the
water table by the process of deep
percolation.
At the water table it becomes part of the
groundwater store

20
DRAINAGE BASIN PROCESSES: AT AND BELOW
THE SURFACE
Overland flow
Water which cannot infiltrate collects on the ground
surface in any hollows and depressions as depression
storage.
If these hollows become full, then the water may flow over
the ground surface in trickles, rivulets and even thin
sheets as overland flow.
Vegetation-covered surfaces have a high infiltration
capacity and, consequently, overland flow is relatively
rare under natural conditions.
Human activities which result in soil compaction, e.g. the
passage of farm machinery or trampling by animals, can
increase overland flow.

21
Main Concepts
Spatial and Temporal Changes
22
THE STORM HYDROGRAPH AND WATER
BALANCE
THE WATER BALANCE
The water balance of a drainage basin is an
important concept.
Changes in the water balance of a basin are
shown by storm hydrographs and river
regimes.
The human impact on the hydrological cycle
can be seen in examples of deforestation,
the construction of large dams and irrigation.
There are also contrasts between water uses
in developed and developing countries.

23
STREAMFLOW
Streamflow is generated by the outputs from the
stores in the drainage basin system.
It occurs when the stores fill up or when they have
sufficient water to release it steadily. The stores
release water at different rates and at different times.
Also, the processes which deliver the water to the
river channel operate at different speeds.
At times of extreme conditions, water inputs may not
enter a store, but move directly to the stream by
overland flow.
As a result, streamflow fluctuates constantly.

24
STREAMFLOW
We measure this varying streamflow in two ways:

Discharge (Q) is the volume of water passing a specific
gauging station per unit of time. Discharge is expressed
as cubic meters of water per second (m
3
/s), often
abbreviated as cumecs.

Runoff is the volume of water passing a gauging station,
represented bas the thickness of water spread over the
drainage basin area above the gauging station. Runoff is
expressed as millimetres per month or year. Measuring
runoff allows us to compare the amount of water
discharged by a river system with the precipitation inputs
over the drainage basin.

25
THE STORM HYDROGRAPH
A storm hydrograph records the discharge pattern of
a river at a specific gauging station, following a single
rainstorm event. In order to show the relationship
between the precipitation input and the discharge of
the water past the gauging station, most storm
hydrographs include the rainfall graph.
This relationship is important to the hydrologist
because it determines the speed and scale of the rise
in discharge, and therefore the likelihood of flooding.
A hydrograph only describes what happened to
streamflow. We need to be able to interpret the graph
in order to explain what happened, in turn predicting
and forecasting what might happen. Drainage basins,
however, change constantly over time and space.

26
27
HYDROGRAPH TERMINOLOGY
Rising limb the steep ascending early part of the
hydrograph
Receding limb the descending part of the hydrograph
Peak the maximum discharge level
Lag the delay between peak rainfall and peak
discharge
Baseflow low water conditions when groundwater
feeds the river
Quickflow the main contributor to the rising limb
Impermeable geological term for rocks in a drainage
basin that would probably give a hydrograph with a high
peak
Throughflow when water that has passed through the
soil feeds the hydrograph
28
THE STORM HYDROGRAPH CHANGES IN
DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTERISTICS
Stores and Flows
The antecedent moisture conditions will
influence how a drainage basin responds to
a rainfall event.
Thus, the same storm may cause a different
discharge response and hydrograph pattern
at different seasons.

29
THE STORM HYDROGRAPH CHANGES IN
DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTERISTICS
Rainfall Intensity
Steady rainfall, even over several days, will allow the
various water stores to fill up gradually and efficiently.
This controls the speed and volume of runoff to the
stream channels. This will be reflected in a broad, flat
hydrograph.
If, however, the precipitation input is intense and
exceeds the soil infiltration and vegetation
interception capacities, quickflow processes e.g.
overland flow, dominate, even when the basin stores
are not full. Discharges rise suddenly and flooding is
likely a situation identified by a flashy hydrograph.

30
THE EFFECT OF DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTER ON THE HYDROGRAPH

Basin size
The volume of runoff, the discharge
(Q) and the lag time tend to
increase with the size of the
drainage basin.
This model may be applied to
humid environments such as the
British Isles. However, in arid and
semi-arid regions, such as the
Sahel of Africa, runoff and
discharge volume may decrease
downstream i.e. as basin size
above a gauging station increases.
This is due to high evaporation
rates, loss by seepage of water into
the channel bed, and the absence
of inputs from tributaries.

31
Small
drainage
basin
Medium
drainage
basin
Large
drainage
basin
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
Q
)

Time
THE EFFECT OF DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTER
ON THE HYDROGRAPH
Basin shape
The shape of a drainage basin will affect the
shape of the storm hydrograph. An elongated
basin will take longer to achieve a throughput
of water from a rainstorm than a short, broad
basin.

32
THE EFFECT OF DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTER
ON THE HYDROGRAPH
Stream network characteristics
The pattern of streams within a drainage basin influences the
transfer of water and consequently the shape of the hydrograph,
i.e. the stream response to rainfall events. Two key variables are
involved:

Stream Density = the total length of the drainage channels,
divided by the drainage basin area.
Calculating stream density Dd =
L
/
A
where:
Dd = the drainage density in km per
km
2

L = the sum of the total stream in
lengths in km
A = the catchment area in km
2



33
Stream network characteristics (...continued)

Stream order = the way the various channels in a
drainage basin fit together.
The most widely used method for describing this
arrangement has been devised b y A.N. Strahler (1952)
and is based on a hierarchal set of stream orders, giving
a negative relationship between stream order and number
of streams.
This ratio is called Hortons law of stream numbers.
Analysis of the stream order structure in a drainage basin
can help in predicting the shape of hydrographs, and
hence flood forecasting.

34
RIVER REGIMES
Shows the pattern of streamflow over a
longer period of time (usually a year)
Looks similar to the storm hydrograph,
except for the horizontal axis depicting
months instead of hours
Regimes can be simple or complex

35
Climatic
Physical
Biotic (human and vegetation)
36
FACTORS AFFECTING DRAINAGE BASIN
CHARACTERISTICS
CLIMATIC FACTORS
37
Prolonged Rainfall - saturated ground, infiltration
capacitites reached, overland flow, flooding
Intense stroms - rainfall intensity greater than
infiltration capacity - overland flow, flash flooding
Snowfall - water is held in storage, impeded
infiltration, runoff after melting
Precipitation
If evapotranspiration rates are high, then there will
be less water available to flow into the main river
Temperature
PHYSICAL FACTORS
38
Rainfall reaches the main channel more quickly in a small drainage
basin
Circular basins have a shorter lag time (NB Newson - 1994)
In steeper sloping basins, water is more likely to reach the channel
quickly
Basin size,
shape and relief
Permeable (porous & pervious) rock permit rapid infiltration
therefore little surface runoff and limited number of surface
streams
Rock type
(geology)
Controls the speed of infiltration, the amount of soil moisture storage
and the rate of throughflow
Sandy soils allow rapid infiltration and do not encourage flooding
(large pore spaces)
Clays have much smaller pore spaces; reduces infiltration and
throughflow but increases surface runoff and encourages flodding
Soil type
Refers to the number of surface streams in a given area.
Density is higher on impermeable rocks and clays.
The higher the density, the greater the probability of flash floods
Drainage
density
BIOTIC FACTORS
39
Can prevent flooding by intercepting rainfall and storing moisture on leaves which is then
evaporated
Tropical rainforests intercept up to 80% of rainfall whereas arable land may intercept only up to
10%
Seasonal changes - deciduous trees
Flooding more likely to occcur in deforested areas e.g. the increasingly frequent flooding in
Bangladesh is attributed tot he removal of trees in Nepal and other Himalayan areas
Deforestation can also have an important effect on local climate - increase in light intensity,
temperature, wind speed and mositure (consequences - organic content decomposed faster,
raindrop impact increases, ET rates decrease, overland runoff increases)
Vegetation
Increases flood risk - reduced infiltration
Reduces the distance that water must travel to
reach a channel
Increases velocity (artificial channels smoother)
Urbanization

Can reduce the earth's albedo (reflectivity) by as much as 10% -
a reflective sandy surface may be replaced by one with dark
green crops
Can also cause changes in precipitation - moist soils and
vegetation cover leads to increased Et rates therefore increased
rainfall e.g. Kansas, Colorado.
Irrigation
Groundwater changes - seepage leads to increased groundwater
Salinisation - occurs when groundwater levels are close to the
surface and capilllary forces bring water to the surface where it
may evaporate, leaving behind any soluble salts that it is carrying
Construction
of dams
Characteristics
Main factors influencing drainage patterns
40
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Over time, a stream system achieves a particulardrainage
pattern to its network of stream channels and tributaries as
determined by local geologic factors.
Drainage patterns or nets are classified on the basis of their form
and texture.
Their shape or pattern develops in response to the local
topography and subsurface geology.
Drainage channels develop where surface runoff is enhanced and
earth materials provide the least resistance to erosion.
On sloping surfaces excess water will run off. Fewer drainage
channels will develop where the surface is flat and the soil
infiltration is high because the water will soak into the surface.
The fewer number of channels, the coarser will be the drainage
pattern.
41
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Dendritic drainage
pattern is the most
common form and looks
like the branching pattern of
tree roots. It develops in
regions underlain by
homogeneous material.
That is, the subsurface
geology has a similar
resistance to weathering so
there is no apparent control
over the direction the
tributaries take. Tributaries
joining larger streams at
acute angle (less than 90
degrees).
42
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Parallel drainage patterns
form where there is a
pronounced slope to the
surface. A parallel pattern also
develops in regions of parallel,
elongate landforms like
outcropping resistant rock
bands. Tributary streams tend
to stretch out in a parallel-like
fashion following the slope of
the surface. A parallel pattern
sometimes indicates the
presence of a major fault that
cuts across an area of steeply
folded bedrock. All forms of
transitions can occur between
parallel, dendritic, and trellis
patterns.
43
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Trellis drainage patterns
look similar to their
namesake, the common
garden trellis. Trellis
drainage develops in folded
topography like that found
in the Appalachian
Mountains of North
America. Down-turned folds
called synclines form
valleys in which resides the
main channel of the stream.
Short tributary streams
enter the main channel at
sharp angles as they run
down sides of parallel
ridges called anticlines.
Tributaries join the main
stream at nearly right
angles.
44
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
The rectangular drainage
pattern is found in regions
that have undergone
faulting. Streams follow the
path of least resistance and
thus are concentrated in
places were exposed rock
is the weakest. Movement
of the surface due to
faulting off-sets the
direction of the stream. As
a result, the tributary
streams make shape bends
and enter the main stream
at high angles.
45
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
The radial drainage
pattern develops
around a central
elevated point. This
pattern is common
to such conically
shaped features as
volcanoes. The
tributary streams
extend the
headward reaches
upslope toward the
top of the volcano.
46
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
The centripetal drainage
pattern is just the opposite of
the radial as streams flow
toward a central depression.
This pattern is typical in the
western and southwestern
portions of the United States
where basins exhibit interior
drainage. During wetter
portions of the year, these
streams feed ephemeral lakes,
which evaporate away during
dry periods. Salt flats are
created in these dry lake beds
as salt dissolved in the lake
water precipitates out of
solution and is left behind
when the water evaporates
away.
47
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Deranged or contorted
patterns develop from the
disruption of a pre-existing
drainage pattern. The figure
on the right began as a
dendritic pattern but was
altered when overrun by
glacier. After receding, the
glacier left behind fine grain
material that form wetlands
and deposits that dammed
the stream to impound a
small lake. The tributary
streams appear
significantly more contorted
than they were prior to
glaciation.
48