Networking Notes

1.A computer network, is a collection of computers

and devices interconnected by communications
channels under single tech

Communications Effectively
sharing of Information and resources

2.Internet Global system of interconnected
computer networks
Network of Networks

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
REFERENCE MODEL
.

LAYER 7 Application layer All Away
LAYER 6 Presentation layer People Pizza
LAYER 5 Session layer Seem Sausage
LAYER 4 Transport layer To Throw
LAYER 3 Network layer Need Not
LAYER 2 Data Link Layer Data Do
LAYER 1 Physical layer Processing Please

Layer 7 Application layer

This is the closest layer to the end user. It provides the interface between the applications we use
and the underlying layers. But notice that the programs you are using (like a web browser IE,
Firefox or Opera) do not belong to Application layer. Telnet, FTP, email client (SMTP),
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) are examples of Application layer.
Layer 6 Presentation layer
This layer ensures the presentation of data, that the communications passing through are in the
appropriate form for the recipient. In general, it acts as a translator of the network. For example,
you want to send an email and the Presentation will format your data into email format. Or you
want to send photos to your friend, the Presentation layer will format your data into GIF, JPG or
PNG format.

Presentation Layer deals with Operating System Issues
Encryption and Decryption are done at Presentation layer

Layer 5 Session layer
Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device.
It establishes a session between two devices


Layer 4 Transport layer
This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and recovery of data
between the devices. The most common example of Transport layer is Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Transport Layer helps us to analyze that how much information can be communicated between 2
devices


Layer 3 Network layer
This layer provides logical addresses which routers will use to determine the path to the destination.
In most cases, the logic addresses here means the IP addresses (including source & destination IP
addresses).

Layer 2 Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer formats the message into a data frame, and adds a header containing the hardware
destination and source address to it. This header is responsible for finding the next destination device on a
local network.

Notice that layer 3 is responsible for finding the path to the last destination (network) but it doesnt care
about who will be the next receiver. It is the Layer 2 that helps data to reach the next destination.
This layer is subdivide into 2 sub-layers: logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC).
The LLC functions include:

+ Managing frames to upper and lower layers
+ Error Control
+ Flow control

The MAC sub layer carries the physical address of each device on the network. This address is more
commonly called a devices MAC address. MAC address is a 48 bits address which is burned into the NIC
card on the device by its manufacturer.

Switches communicate in Data Link Layer
Layer 1 Physical layer
The Physical Layer defines the physical characteristics of the network such as connections,
voltage levels and timing.
To help you remember the functions of each layer more easily, I created a fun story in which
Henry (English) wants to send a document to Charles (French) to demonstrate how the OSI
model works.

Wiring ,cableling and all Physical connections connected to a system.

Layer Description Popular Protocols Protocol
Data Unit
Devices
operate in
this layer
Application + User interface HTTP, FTP, TFTP,
Telnet, SNMP, DNS
Data
Presentation + Data representation,
encryption & decryption
+ Video (WMV, AVI)
+ Bitmap (JPG, BMP,
PNG)
+ Audio (WAV, MP3,
WMA)
.
Data
Session + Set up, monitor &
terminate the connection
session
+ SQL, RPC, NETBIOS
names
Data
Transport + Flow control (Buffering,
Windowing, Congestion
Avoidance) helps prevent
the loss of segments on the
network and the need for
retransmission
+ TCP (Connection-
Oriented, reliable)
+ UDP (Connectionless,
unreliable)
Segment
Layer Description Popular Protocols Protocol Data Unit Devices operate
in this layer
Network + Path determination
+ Source & Destination
logical addresses
+ IP
+ IPX
+ AppleTalk
Packet/Datagram Router
Data Link + Physical addresses
Includes 2 layers:
+ Upper layer: Logical
Link Control (LLC)
+ Lower layer: Media
Access Control (MAC)
+ LAN
+ WAN (HDLC,
PPP, Frame
Relay)
Frame Switch, Bridge
Physical Encodes and transmits
data bits
+ Electric signals
+ Radio signals
+ FDDI, Ethernet Bit (0, 1) Hub, Repeater
The TCP/IP Reference Model
te.


Layer 4. Application Layer

Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model. Application layer is present on the
top of the Transport layer.
Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with
Transport layer services to use the network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming System), HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol)
etc.
Layer 3. Transport Layer

Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of the Transport
layer is between Application layer and Internet layer.
The purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation. Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used when
transporting data.
The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol).
Layer 2. Internet Layer

Internet Layer is the second layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of Internet layer is
between Network Access Layer and Transport layer.
Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and
destination address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams
between hosts and across networks.
The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
Packet switching network depends upon a connectionless internetwork layer. This layer is known
as Internet layer.
Its job is to allow hosts to insert packets into any network and have them to deliver independently to
the destination.
At the destination side data packets may appear in a different order than they were sent. It is the
job of the higher layers to rearrange them in order to deliver them to proper network applications
operating at the Application layer.
The main protocols included at Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).

Layer 1. Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP model.
Network Access Layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network, including
how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a
network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
The protocols included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay
etc.

The most popular LAN architecture among those listed above is Ethernet. Ethernet uses an Access
Method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to access the media, when
Ethernet operates in a shared media. An Access Method determines how a host will place data on the
medium.
Types of Networks:
Local Area Networks (LAN) < 1KM
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) 1 to 50 KM
Wide Area Networks (WAN) > 50 KM
Internet Global Network Network of Networks. Network between org.
Intranet A Private Computer Network within an Organization to securely
share information and for Internal Communication
Internet Connection is shared between different parts of organization
Restricted to single boundary, only few users are allowed to access
Extranet Any number of intranets combine to form Extranet
company's intranet that is extended to users outside the company, usually partners,
vendors, and suppliers.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
secure way of connecting to a private Local Area Network at a remote location, using the
Internet
Storage Area Networks (SAN)
Network of Computing devices and Storage devices
Network Topology

Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Mesh Topology
Star Topology
Tree Topology

Out of all these Star Topology is a good one

Addressing Mechanism

Physical Addressing or MAC Address
48 Bit

Logical Addressing Or IP Address
uniquely identify a device on an IP network
24 bit

Port Addressing
Identify process within the system
16 Bit
Logical Addressing
Conversion: Binary Decimal - Hexa Decimal
Class A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
0.0.0.0 and 127.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 are reserved
Class B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Network ID and Host ID
Ip Addressing Algorithm
What is IP ?
An IP addresses is a unique logical number to a network device or interface. Every device has a logical
address in network layer of OSI model or in data network for packet routing which is called IP
address. Internet Protocol is a protocol use for communication and for routing packets throughout
data network.

IPv4 Addressing
The IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes i.e. Class A, B, C, D and E. Each IP address class is
identified by the initial bits of the address.
IP Classes Initial Bits Address Ranges

CLASS A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
CLASS B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
CLASS C 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
CLASS D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
CLASS E 240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255

x.x.x is reserved for multi cast address. Classes A, B, and C are unicast IP addresses, meaning that the
destination is a single host. IP Class D addresses are multicast addresses, which are sent to multiple
hosts. IP Class E addresses are reserved. IP addresses are divided into two groups i.e.
Public IP address
Private IP address





Private IP addresses are selected address ranges that are reserved for use by companies in their
private networks. These private addresses are not routed in the Internet. NAT translates between
private and public addresses. Following are the IP ranges that can be used in private network:
From 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
From 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
From 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

An IPv4 address is 32 bits in length. An IPv4 consist of four octets and every octet is of 8-bit, each
converted into decimal numbers (for example, 10.1.1.1). Each bit in every octet is representing or
equivalent to a number into decimal.
Bit 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
6
TH
7
TH
8
th
Decimal Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1






Class A IP Addresses

Class A IP addresses range from 0 to 127 in the first byte. Network numbers available for assignment
to organizations are from 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0. Networks 0 and 127 are reserved. For example,
127.0.0.1 is reserved for local host or host loopback. A packet sent to a local host address is sent to
the local machine. By default, in Class A IP addresses, the first byte is representing the network
portion, and the three remaining bytes are the host number. The format is N.H.H.H, where N is the
network part and H is the host part. With 24 bits available, there are 6,777,214 (2
24
2) IP
addresses for host assignment per Class A network. We subtract two for the network number (all 0s)
and broadcast address (all 1s).
Class A Address format: Network Host Host Host

Class B IP Addresses

Class B addresses range from 128 to 191 in the first byte. Valid IP range for Class D IP addresses are
from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0. By default, for Class B addresses, the first two bytes are the network
part, and the remaining two bytes are the host number. The format is N.N.H.H. With 16 bits
available, there are 2
16
2 = 65,534 IP addresses for host assignment per Class B network. As with
Class A addresses, having a segment with more than 65,000 hosts broadcasting will surely not work;
you resolve this issue with subnetting.
Class B Address format: Network Network Host Host
Class C IP Addresses

Class C addresses range from 192 to 223 in the first byte. Network numbers assigned to companies
are from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0. The format is N.N.N.H. With 8 bits available, there are 2
8
2
= 254 IP addresses for host assignment per Class C network. H = 0 is the network number; H = 255
is the broadcast address.
Class B Address format:Network Network Network Host
Class D IP Addresses

Class D addresses range from 224 to 239 in the first byte. Network numbers assigned to multicast
groups range from 224.0.0.1 to 239.255.255.255. These addresses do not have a host or network
part. Some multicast addresses are already assigned; for example, 224.0.0.10 is used by routers
running EIGRP.

Class E IP Addresses

Class E addresses range from 240 to 254. These addresses are reserved for experimental networks.
Network 255 is reserved for the broadcast address, such as 255.255.255.255.
IPv4 Address Type

IPv4 addresses can be divided into one of three types:

Unicast IPv4 address: The IP address of an interface on a single host is called unicast address. It can be
a source or destination address

Broadcast IPv4 address: An IP address that reaches all hosts in an address range is called broadcast
address. It is only a destination address.

Multicast IPv4 address: An IP address that reaches a group of hosts. It is only a destination address