Chapter 4

The Carbohydrates: Sugars,

Starches, and Fibres
The Chemists View of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
These atoms form chemical bonds that
follow the laws of nature.
The Simple Carbohydrates
Monosaccharrides are single sugars (most are
hexoses).
Glucose serves as the essential energy source, and
is commonly known as blood sugar or dextrose.
Fructose is the sweetest. It occurs naturally in honey
and fruits, and is added to many foods in the form of
high-fructose corn syrup.
Galactose rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar.
The Simple Carbohydrates
Disaccharides are pairs of monosaccharides, one of
which is always glucose.
Condensation reactions link monosaccharides together.
Hydrolysis reactions split molecules and commonly occur during
digestion.
Maltose consists of two glucose units. It is produced during the
germination of seeds and fermentation.
Sucrose is fructose and glucose combined. It is refined from
sugarcane and sugar beets, tastes sweet, and is readily
available.
Lactose is galactose and glucose combined. It is found in milk
and milk products.
The Complex Carbohydrates
Few (oligosaccharides) or many
(polysaccharides) glucose units
bound/linked together in straight or
branched chains.
The Complex Carbohydrates
Glycogen
storage form of glucose in the body
provides a rapid release of energy when
needed.
Starches
storage form of glucose in plants
found in grains, tubers, and legumes.
The Complex Carbohydrates
Dietary fibre provide structure in plants, are very
diverse, and cannot be broken down by human
enzymes.
Soluble fibres are viscous and can be digested by
intestinal bacteria (this property is also known as
fermentability). These fibres are found in fruits and
vegetables.
Insoluble fibres are non-viscous and are not digested
by intestinal bacteria. These fibres are found in grains
and vegetables.
The Complex Carbohydrates
Fibre Sources
Dietary fibre is found in plant foods.
Functional fibres are health-benefiting fibres that are
added to foods or supplements.
Total fibre considers both dietary and functional fibres.
Resistant starches escape digestion and are found
in legumes, raw potatoes and unripe bananas.
Phytic acid or phytate has a close association with
fibre and binds some minerals.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion
In the mouth, the salivary enzyme amylase
begins to hydrolyse starch into short
polysaccharides and maltose.
In the stomach, acid continues to hydrolyse
starch while dietary fibre delays gastric
emptying and provides a feeling of fullness
(satiety).
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion
In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase
among other enzymes (maltase, sucrase, and
lactase) hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides
and monosaccharides.
In the large intestine, dietary fibre remains
and attract water, soften stools and ferment.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Absorption
primarily takes place in the small intestine
glucose and galactose are absorbed by active
transport
fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Lactose Intolerance
Symptoms include bloating, abdominal discomfort,
and diarrhoea.
Causes include lactase deficiency due to a natural
decrease that occurs with aging or damaged intestinal
villi.
Prevalence
lowest in Scandinavians and northern Europeans
highest in Southeast Asians and native North Americans.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Lactose Intolerance
Dietary changes
increase consumption of milk products gradually
mix dairy with other foods
spread dairy intake throughout the day
use of acidophilus milk, yoghurt, and other fermented
products)
use of enzymes
individualisation of diets
must be careful that vitamin and mineral deficiencies do not
develop.
Glucose in the Body
A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
The body stores glucose as glycogen in liver and
muscle cells.
The body uses glucose for energy if glycogen stores
are available.
If glycogen stores are depleted, the body makes
glucose from protein.
Gluconeogenesis is the conversion of protein to glucose.
Protein-sparing action is having adequate carbohydrate in
the diet to prevent the breakdown of protein for energy.
Glucose in the Body
A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Ketone bodies are made from fat fragments.
The accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood is called
ketosis.
Ketosis upsets the acid-base balance in the body.
The body can use glucose to make body fat when
carbohydrates are consumed excessively.
Glucose in the Body
The Constancy of Blood Glucose
Maintaining glucose homeostasis
Low blood glucose may cause dizziness and
weakness.
High blood glucose may cause fatigue.
Extreme fluctuations can be fatal.
Glucose in the Body
The Constancy of Blood Glucose
The regulating hormones
insulin moves glucose into the cells and helps to lower blood
sugar levels
glucagon brings glucose out of storage and raises blood
sugar levels
epinephrine acts quickly to bring glucose out of storage
during times of stress.
Balance glucose within the normal range by eating
balanced meals regularly with adequate complex
carbohydrates.
Blood glucose can fall outside the normal range with
hypoglycemia or diabetes.
Glucose in the Body
The Constancy of Blood Glucose
Diabetes
type 1 diabetes is the less common type with no insulin
produced by the body
type 2 diabetes is the more common type where fat cells
resist insulin
prediabetes is blood glucose that is higher than normal but
below the diagnosis of diabetes.
Hypoglycaemia is low blood glucose and can often be
controlled by dietary changes.
Glucose in the Body
The Constancy of Blood Glucose
Glycaemic response is how quickly the blood glucose
rises and elicits an insulin response.
Glycaemic index classifies foods according to their potential
for raising blood glucose.
Glycaemic load refers to a foods glycaemic index and the
amount of carbohydrate the food contains.
The benefit of the glycaemic index is controversial.
Health Effects and Recommended
Intakes of Sugars
Sugar poses no major health problem except
dental caries.
Excessive intakes may displace nutrients and
contribute to obesity.
Consuming foods with added sugars should be
limited.
Naturally occurring sugars from fruits,
vegetables and milk are acceptable sources.
Health Effects and Recommended
Intakes of Sugars
Health Effects of Sugars
Foods with added sugars have sugars listed as a first
ingredient.
Nutrient deficiencies may develop from the intake of
empty energy.
Just because a substance is natural does not mean it is
nutritious (e.g. honey).
Dental caries may be caused by bacteria residing in
dental plaque and the length of time sugars have
contact with the teeth.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Sugars
Controversies Surrounding Sugars
Excessive sugar intake can contribute to the
development of body fat.
Sugar may be able to alter blood lipid levels and
contribute to heart disease in some.
There is no scientific evidence that sugar causes
misbehaviour in children and criminal behaviour in
adults.
There is a theory that sugar increases serotonin
levels, which can lead to cravings and addictions.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Sugars
Recommended Intakes of Sugars
Because added sugars deliver energy but few
or no nutrients, the Dietary Guidelines for
Australian Adults urges consumers to
consume only a moderate amounts of sugars
and food containing added sugars.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Starch and Fibres
Health Effects of Starch and Dietary Fibre
may be some protection from heart disease and
stroke
soluble dietary fibre binds with bile and thereby lower blood
cholesterol levels
dietary fibre may also displace fat in the diet
reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes by decreasing
glucose absorption
enhance the health of the GI tract which can then
block the absorption of unwanted particles
may protect against colon cancer by removing
potential cancer-causing agents from the body.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Starch and Fibres
Health Effects of Starch and Dietary Fibre
They promote weight control because
complex carbohydrates provide less fat and
added sugar.
Harmful effects of excessive dietary fibre
intake
displaces energy and nutrient-dense foods
abdominal discomfort and distention
may interfere with nutrient absorption.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Starch and Fibres
Recommended Intakes of Starch and
Dietary Fibre
The RDI for carbohydrate is set at 130 grams per day,
based on the average minimum amount of glucose
used by the brain.
The Dietitians Association of Australia recommends
eating 30 grams of dietary fibre daily.
Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Starch and Fibres
Recommended Intakes of Fibre
FDA recommends 25 grams for a 2000-kcalorie diet.
DRI at 14 grams per 1000-kcalorie intake (28 grams
for a 2000-kcalorie diet)
American Dietetic Association recommends 20 to 35
grams per day.
World Health Organization suggests no more than 40
grams per day.

Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of
Starch and Fibres
From Guidelines to Groceries
bread, cereals, rice, pasta and noodles when selecting from
this group of foods, be sure to make at least half wholegrain
products
vegetables the amount of carbohydrate depends primarily on
its starch content.
fruit vary in water, dietary fibre and sugar content.
milks, yoghurt and cheese contain carbohydrate; cheese is
low
meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts and legumes meats are low
but nuts and legumes have some carbohydrate
food labels list grams of total carbohydrate, dietary fibre and
sugar.
Alternatives to Sugar
Artificial Sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are also called sugar
replacers and non-nutritive sweeteners.
Saccharin
used primarily in soft drinks and as a tabletop sweetener
rapidly excreted in the urine
does not accumulate in the body
has been removed from list of cancer-causing
substances.
Artificial Sweeteners
Acesulfame-K (acesulfame potassium)
research confirms safety
Sucralose
made from sugar
passes through digestive tract
Alitame and cyclamate
very few food items use these sweeteners.
Artificial Sweeteners
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the level of
consumption, maintained every day and still safe by
a wide margin.
Moderation and variety are still recommended.
Artificial sweeteners and weight control
Much research is still being done.
Using artificial sweeteners will not automatically
reduce energy intake.
Sugar Replacers
also called nutritive sweeteners, sugar
alcohols, and polyols
maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt,
and lactitol
absorbed more slowly and metabolized
differently in the body
low glycaemic response
side effects include GI discomfort.