IIR Direct Form Realization

Copyright 2001, S. K.
Mitra
Basic IIR Digital Filter
Structures
The causal IIR digital filters we are
concerned with in this course are
characterized by a real rational transfer
function of or, equivalently by a constant
coefficient difference equation
From the difference equation representation,
it can be seen that the realization of the
causal IIR digital filters requires some form
of feedback
1
z
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
Basic IIR Digital Filter
Structures
An N-th order IIR digital transfer function is
characterized by 2N+1 unique coefficients,
and in general, requires 2N+1 multipliers
and 2N two-input adders for implementation
Direct form IIR filters: Filter structures in
which the multiplier coefficients are
precisely the coefficients of the transfer
function
Direct Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures
Consider for simplicity a 3rd-order IIR filter
with a transfer function

We can implement H(z) as a cascade of two
filter sections as shown on the next slide
3
3
2
2
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
1 0
1

+ + +
+ + +
= =
z d z d z d
z p z p z p p
z D
z P
z H
) (
) (
) (
Structures

where
3
3
2
2
1
1 0 1

+ + + = = = z p z p z p p z P
z X
z W
z H ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (z H
1
) (z H
2
) (z W
) (z X ) (z Y
3
3
2
2
1
1
2
1
1 1

+ + +
= = =
z d z d z d
z D z W
z Y
z H
) ( ) (
) (
) (
Structures
The filter section can be seen to be
an FIR filter and can be realized as shown
below

] 3 [ ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] [ ] [
3 2 1 0
+ + + = n x p n x p n x p n x p n w
) (z H
1
Structures
The time-domain representation of is
given by

Realization of
follows from the
above equation
and is shown on
the right
) (z H
2
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ 3 2 1
3 2 1
= n y d n y d n y d n w n y
) (z H
2
Structures
A cascade of the two structures realizing
and leads to the realization of
shown below and is known as the direct
form I structure
) (z H
2
) (z H
1
) (z H
Structures
Note: The direct form I structure is
noncanonic as it employs 6 delays to realize
a 3rd-order transfer function
A transpose of the
direct form I structure
is shown on the right
and is called the direct
form I structure
t
Structures
Various other noncanonic direct form
structures can be derived by simple block
diagram manipulations as shown below
Structures
Observe in the direct form structure shown
below, the signal variable at nodes and
are the same, and hence the two top delays
can be shared
1 ' 1
Structures
Likewise, the signal variables at nodes
and are the same, permitting the sharing
of the middle two delays
Following the same argument, the bottom
two delays can be shared
Sharing of all delays reduces the total
number of delays to 3 resulting in a canonic
realization shown on the next slide along
with its transpose structure
2
' 2
Structures

Direct form realizations of an N-th order IIR
transfer function should be evident
Cascade Form IIR Digital
Filter Structures
By expressing the numerator and the
denominator polynomials of the transfer
function as a product of polynomials of
lower degree, a digital filter can be realized
as a cascade of low-order filter sections
Consider, for example, H(z) = P(z)/D(z)
expressed as
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
z D z D z D
z P z P z P
z D
z P
z H
3 2 1
2 2 1
= =
Filter Structures
Examples of cascade realizations obtained
by different pole-zero pairings are shown
below
Filter Structures
Examples of cascade realizations obtained
by different ordering of sections are shown
below
Filter Structures
There are altogether a total of 36 different
cascade realizations of

based on pole-zero-pairings and ordering
Due to finite wordlength effects, each such
cascade realization behaves differently from
others
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
z D z D z D
z P z P z P
z H
3 2 1
2 2 1
=
Filter Structures
Usually, the polynomials are factored into a
product of 1st-order and 2nd-order
polynomials:

In the above, for a first-order factor
[
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
=

k
k k
k k
z z
z z
p z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
1
o o
| |
) (
0
2 2
= =
k k
| o
Filter Structures
Consider the 3rd-order transfer function

One possible realization is shown below
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=

+ +
+
+
2
22
1
12
2
22
1
12
1
11
1
11
1
1
1
1
0
z z
p z H
z z
z
z
o o
| |
o
|
) (
Filter Structures
Example - Direct form II and cascade form
realizations of

are shown on the next slide
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0

+ +
+ +
=
z z z
z z z
z H
. . .
. . .
) (
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

+ +
+ +
1
1
2 1
2 1
4 0 1 5 0 8 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0
z
z
z z
z z
. . .
. . .
Filter Structures

Direct form II Cascade form
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures
A partial-fraction expansion of the transfer
function in leads to the parallel form I
structure
Assuming simple poles, the transfer function
H(z) can be expressed as

In the above for a real pole
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

+ +
+
k
z z
z
k k
k k
z H
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
1
0
o o

) (
0
1 2
= =
k k
o
1
z
Structures
A direct partial-fraction expansion of the
transfer function in z leads to the parallel
form II structure
Assuming simple poles, the transfer function
H(z) can be expressed as

In the above for a real pole
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

+ +
+
k
z z
z z
k k
k k
z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
0
1
0
o o
o o
o ) (
0
2 2
= =
k k
o o
Structures
The two basic parallel realizations of a 3rd-
order IIR transfer function are shown below
Parallel form I Parallel form II
Structures
Example - A partial-fraction expansion of

in yields

3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0

+ +
+ +
=
z z z
z z z
z H
. . .
. . .
) (
2 1
1
1
5 0 8 0 1
2 0 5 0
4 0 1
6 0
1 0

+ +

+ + =
z z
z
z
z H
. .
. .
.
.
. ) (
1
z
Structures
The corresponding parallel form I realization
is shown below
Structures
Likewise, a partial-fraction expansion of
H(z) in z yields

The corresponding
parallel form II
realization is shown
on the right
2 1
1 1
1
1
5 0 8 0 1
25 0 2 0
4 0 1
24 0

+ +
+
+ =
z z
z z
z
z
z H
. .
. .
.
.
) (
Realization Using MATLAB
The cascade form requires the factorization
of the transfer function which can be
developed using the M-file zp2sos
The statement sos = zp2sos(z,p,k)
generates a matrix sos containing the
coefficients of each 2nd-order section of the
equivalent transfer function H(z) determined
from its pole-zero form

sos is an matrix of the form

whose i-th row contains the coefficients
and , of the the numerator and
denominator polynomials of the i-th 2nd-
order section

6 L
(
(
(
=
2L 1L 0L 2L 1L 0L
22 12 02 22 12 02
21 11 01 21 11 01
d d d p p p
d d d p p p
d d d p p p
sos
} {
i
p
} {
i
d
L denotes the number of sections
The form of the overall transfer function is
given by

Program 6_1 can be used to factorize an
FIR and an IIR transfer function
[ [
=

=
+ +
+ +
= =
L
i i i i
i i i
L
i
i
z d z d d
z p z p p
z H z H
1
2
2
1
1 0
2
2
1
1 0
1
) ( ) (
Note: An FIR transfer function can be
treated as an IIR transfer function with a
constant numerator of unity and a
denominator which is the polynomial
describing the FIR transfer function
Parallel forms I and II can be developed
using the functions residuez and
residue, respectively
Program 6_2 uses these two functions
Realization of Allpass Filters
An M-th order real-coefficient allpass
transfer function is characterized by
M unique coefficients as here the numerator
is the mirror-image polynomial of the
denominator
A direct form realization of requires
2M multipliers
Objective - Develop realizations of
requiring only M multipliers
) (z A
M
) (z A
M
) (z A
M
Realization Using Multiplier
Extraction Approach
Now, an arbitrary allpass transfer function
can be expressed as a product of 2nd-order
and/or 1st-order allpass transfer functions
We consider first the minimum multiplier
realization of a 1st-order and a 2nd-order
allpass transfer functions

First-Order Allpass Structures
Consider first the 1st-order allpass transfe
function given by

We shall realize the above transfer function
in the form a structure containing a single
multiplier as shown below
1
d
1
21 12 22 11
1
22
1
11
= = =

t t t t z t z t , ,
1
d
1
X
2
X
1
Y
2
Y
We express the transfer function
in terms of the transfer parameters of the
two-pair as

A comparison of the above with

yields
1
1
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
z d
z d
z A ) (
22 1
21 12 22 11 1 11
22 1
1 21 12
11
1 1
1
t d
t t t t d t
t d
d t t
t z A

=
+ =
) (
) (
1 1 1
X Y z A / ) ( =
1
21 12 22 11
1
22
1
11
= = =

t t t t z t z t , ,
Substituting and in
we get

There are 4 possible solutions to the above
equation:
Type 1A:
Type 1B:
1
21 12 22 11
= t t t t
1
11

= z t
1
22

= z t
2
21 12
1

= z t t
1 1
21
2
12
1
22
1
11
= = = =

t z t z t z t , , ,
1
21
1
12
1
22
1
11
1 1

= + = = = z t z t z t z t , , ,
Type 1A :
Type 1B :

We now develop the two-pair structure for
the Type 1A allpass transfer function

2
21 12
1
22
1
11
1 1

= = = = z t t z t z t , , ,
1
21
1
12
1
22
1
11
1 1

+ = = = = z t z t z t z t , , ,
t
t
From the transfer parameters of this allpass
we arrive at the input-output relations:

A realization of the above two-pair is
sketched below
2
1
1 2
X z X Y

=
2 2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 X Y z X z X z Y + = + =

) (
By constraining the , terminal-pair
with the multiplier , we arrive at the
Type 1A allpass filter structure shown
below
2
X
2
Y
1
d
Type 1A
In a similar fashion, the other three single-
multiplier first-order allpass filter structures
can be developed as shown below
Type 1B Type 1A
t
Type 1B
t
Second-Order Allpass
Structures
A 2nd-order allpass transfer function is
characterized by 2 unique coefficients
Hence, it can be realized using only 2
multipliers
Type 2 allpass transfer function:
2
2 1
1
1
2 1
1 2 1
2
1

+ +
+ +
=
z d d z d
z z d d d
z A ) (
Type 2 Allpass Structures

Type 3 allpass transfer function:
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
3
1

+ +
+ +
=
z d z d
z z d d
z A ) (

Realization Using Multiplier
Extraction Approach
Example - Realize

A 3-multiplier realization of the above
allpass transfer function is shown below
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
4 0 18 0 2 0
3

+ +
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z A
. . .
. . .
) (
) . . )( . (
) . . )( . (
2 1 1
2 1 1
5 0 8 0 1 4 0 1
8 0 5 0 4 0

+ +
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
Realization Using Two-Pair
Extraction Approach
The stability test algorithm described earlier
in the course also leas to an elegant
realization of an Mth-order allpass transfer
function
The algorithm is based on the development
of a series of th-order allpass transfer
functions from an mth-order allpass
transfer function for
) ( 1 m
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
1 1 , . . . , , = M M m
Extraction Approach
Let

We use the recursion

where
It has been shown earlier that is
stable if and only if
m
m
m
m
m m
m m m
z d z d z d z d
z z d z d z d d
m
z A

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
=
) (
) (
. . .
. . .
) (
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 1 , . . . , , = M M m
], [ ) (
) (
) (
z A k
k z A
m
m m
m m
z z A

=
1
1
m m m
d A k = = ) (
) (z A
M
1
2
<
m
k for 1 1 , . . . , , = M M m
Extraction Approach
If the allpass transfer function is
expressed in the form

then the coefficients of are simply
related to the coefficients of through
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
' '
. . .
'
'
. . .
' '
) (
1
1
2
2
1
1
1 2
1
1
2 1
1
1

+ + + +
+ + + +
=
m
m
m
m
m m
m m
z d z d z d
z z d z d d
m
z A
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
1 1
1
2
s s
=

m i
d
d d d
d
m
i m m i
i
,
'
) (z A
m 1
Extraction Approach
To develop the realization method we
express in terms of :

We realize in the form shown below
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
) (z A
m
) (
) (
) (
z A z k
z A z k
m
m m
m m
z A
1
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
) (z A
m
) (z A
m 1
1
X
1
Y
2
X
2
Y
22 21
12 11
t t
t t
Extraction Approach
The transfer function of the
constrained two-pair can be expressed as

Comparing the above with

we arrive at the two-pair transfer parameters
) (
) ( ) (
) (
z A t
z A t t t t t
m
m
m
z A
1 22
1 21 12 22 11 11
1

=
1 1
X Y z A
m
/ ) ( =
) (
) (
) (
z A z k
z A z k
m
m m
m m
z A
1
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
Extraction Approach

Substituting and in the
equation above we get

There are a number of solutions for and
1
22 11

= = z k t k t
m m
,
1
21 12 22 11

= z t t t t
1
22

= z k t
m m
k t =
11
1 2
21 12
1

= z k t t
m
) (
21
t
12
t
Extraction Approach
Some possible solutions are given below:
1 1
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
= = = =

t z k t z k t k t
m m m
, ) ( , ,
m m m m
k t z k t z k t k t + = = = =

1 1
21
1
12
1
22 11
, ) ( , ,
2
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
1 1
m m m m
k t z k t z k t k t = = = =

, , ,
2
21
1
12
1
22 11
1
m m m
k t z t z k t k t = = = =

, , ,
Extraction Approach
Consider the solution

Corresponding input-output relations are

A direct realization of the above equations
leads to the 3-multiplier two-pair shown on
the next slide
1 1
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
= = = =

t z k t z k t k t
m m m
, ) ( , ,
2
1 2
1 1
1 X z k X k Y
m m

= ) (
2
1
1 2
X z k X Y
m

=
Extraction Approach

The transfer parameters

lead to the 4-multiplier two-pair structure
shown below
m m m m
k t z k t z k t k t + = = = =

1 1
21
1
12
1
22 11
, ) ( , ,
Extraction Approach
Likewise, the transfer parameters

lead to the 4-multiplier two-pair structure
shown below
2
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
1 1
m m m m
k t z k t z k t k t = = = =

, , ,
Extraction Approach
A 2-multiplier realization can be derived by
manipulating the input-output relations:

Making use of the second equation, we can
rewrite the first equation as
2
1 2
1 1
1 X z k X k Y
m m

= ) (
2
1
1 2
X z k X Y
m

=
2
1
2 1
X z Y k Y
m

+ =
Extraction Approach
A direct realization of

lead to the 2-multiplier two-pair structure,
known as the lattice structure, shown below
2
1
2 1
X z Y k Y
m

+ =
2
1
1 2
X z k X Y
m

=
Extraction Approach
Consider the two-pair described by

Its input-output relations are given by

Define
m m m m
k t z k t z k t k t + = = = =

1 1
21
1
12
1
22 11
, ) ( , ,
2
1
1 1
1 X z k X k Y
m m

+ = ) (
2
1
1 2
1 X z k X k Y
m m

+ = ) (
2
1
1 1
X z X k V
m
) (

=
Extraction Approach
We can then rewrite the input-output
relations as and
The corresponding 1-multiplier realization
is shown below
2
1
1 1
X z V Y

+ =
1 1 2
V X Y + =
1
V
1
V
Extraction Approach
An mth-order allpass transfer function
is then realized by constraining any one of
the two-pairs developed earlier by the
th-order allpass transfer function

) ( 1 m
) (z A
m
) (z A
m 1
Extraction Approach
The process is repeated until the
constraining transfer function is
The complete realization of based on
the extraction of the two-pair latttice is
shown below
) (z A
M
1
0
= ) (z A
Extraction Approach
It follows from our earlier discussion that
is stable if the magnitudes of all
multiplier coefficients in the realization are
less than 1, i.e., for
The cascaded lattice allpass filter structure
requires 2M multipliers
A realization with M multipliers is obtained if
instead the single multiplier two-pair is used
1 < | |
m
k 1 1 , . . . , , = M M m
) (z A
M
Extraction Approach
Example - Realize

3
3
2
2
1
1
3 2
1
1
2 1
1

+ + +
+ + +
=
z d z d z d
z z d z d d
3 2 1
3 2 1
3
2 . 0 18 . 0 4 . 0 1
4 . 0 18 . 0 2 . 0
) (

+ +
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z A
Extraction Approach
We first realize in the form of a
lattice two-pair characterized by the
multiplier coefficient
and constrained by a 2nd-order allpass
as indicated below
) (
3
z A
) (
2
z A
2 . 0
3 3
= = d k
2 . 0
3
= k
Extraction Approach
The allpass transfer function is of the
form

Its coefficients are given by

) (
2
z A
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
' '
1
' '
2
) (

+ +
+ +
=
z d z d
z z d d
z A
4541667 . 0
2 2
3
2 3 1
) 2 . 0 ( 1
) 18 . 0 )( 2 . 0 ( 4 . 0
1
'
1
= = =

d
d d d
d
2708333 . 0
2 2
3
1 3 2
) 2 . 0 ( 1
) 4 . 0 )( 2 . 0 ( 18 . 0
1
'
2
= = =

d
d d d
d
Extraction Approach
Next, the allpass is realized as a
and constrained by an allpass as
indicated below
) (
2
z A
) (
1
z A
2708333 . 0
'
2 2
= = d k
, 2 . 0
3
= k 2708333 . 0
2
= k
Extraction Approach
The allpass transfer function is of the
form

It coefficient is given by
) (
1
z A
1
1
1
1
"
1
"
1
) (

+
=
+
z d
z d
z A
3573771 . 0
2708333 . 1
4541667 . 0
1 ) ( 1
"
1
'
2
'
1
2 '
2
'
1
'
2
'
1
= = = =
+
d
d
d
d d d
d
Extraction Approach
Finally, the allpass is realized as a
and constrained by an allpass as
indicated below
) (
1
z A
1 ) (
0
= z A
3573771 . 0
"
1 1
= = d k
, 2 . 0
3
= k 2708333 . 0
2
= k
3573771 . 0
1
= k
Cascaded Lattice Realization
Using MATLAB
The M-file poly2rc can be used to realize
an allpass transfer function in the cascaded
lattice form
To this end Program 6_3 can be employed

IIR Direct Form Realization

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Copyright 2001, S. K.

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