Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Amplifier
Op-Amp Buffer
It provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit
to another.
Typically a buffer amplifier is used to transfer a voltage from a
first circuit, having a high output impedance level, to a second
circuit with a low input impedance level. The interposed buffer
amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit
unacceptably and interfering with its desired operation.
If the voltage is transferred unchanged (the voltage gain is 1), the
amplifier is a unity gain buffer; also known as a voltage
follower.
Although the voltage gain of a buffer amplifier may be
(approximately) unity, it usually provides considerable current
gain and thus power gain. However, it is commonplace to say
that it has a gain of 1 (or the equivalent 0 dB), referring to the
voltage gain.
Comparator
a comparator is a device which compares two
voltages or currents and switches its output to
indicate which is larger. More generally, the term is
also used to refer to a device that compares two
items of data.
A standard op-amp without negative feedback can
be used as a comparator, as indicated in the
following diagram
When the non-inverting input (V+) is at a higher voltage than the inverting input (V-), the high
gain of the op-amp causes it to output the most positive voltage it can. When the non-inverting
input (V+) drops below the inverting input (V-), the op-amp outputs the most negative voltage it
can. Since the output voltage is limited by the supply voltage, for an op-amp that uses a
balanced, split supply, (powered by ± VS) this action can be written:
Vout = VS sgn(V+ − V−)
where sgn(x) is the signum function. Generally, the positive and negative supplies VS will not
match absolute value:
Vout <= VS+ when (V+ > V-) else VS- when (V+ < V-).
Equality of input values is very difficult to achieve in practice. The speed at which the change in
output results from a change in input (often called the slew rate in operational amplifiers) is
typically in the order of 10ns to 100ns, but can be as slow as a few tens of μs.
A dedicated voltage comparator chip, such as the LM339, is designed to interface directly to
digital logic (for example TTL or CMOS). The output is a binary state, and it is often used to
interface real world signals to digital circuitry (see analog to digital converter). The LM339
Comparator
The LM339 accomplishes this with an open collector output. When the inverting input
is higher, the output of the comparator is connected to the negative power supply.
When the noninverting input is higher, the output is floating (has a very high
impedance to ground). With a pull-up resistor and a 0 to +5V power supply, the output
takes on the voltages 0 or +5 and can be interfaced to TTL logic:
Vout <= Vcc when (V+ > V-) else 0.
A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster than a general-purpose
op-amp pressed into service as a comparator. A dedicated voltage comparator may
also contain additional features such as an accurate, internal voltage reference and
adjustable hysteresis.
It is incorrect to consider a comparator as a device with a differential (bipolar) input
and a logic (0/Vcc) output as the inputs of real comparators are not isolated. This
means that not only their difference affects the output but also their voltages must not
exceed the power voltage range: VS- ≤ V+,V- ≤ VS+. In the case of TTL/CMOS logic
output comparators negative inputs are not allowed: 0 ≤ V+,V- ≤ Vcc.
When comparing a noisy signal to a threshold, the comparator may switch rapidly
from state to state as the signal crosses the threshold. If this is unwanted, a
Schmitt trigger can be used to provide hysteresis and a cleaner output signal.
DIFRENTIAL AMP
From the above equation, we can see that as Ac approaches zero, CMRR
approaches infinity. The higher the resistance of the current source, Re, the lower Ac
is, and the better the CMRR. Thus, for a perfectly symmetrical differential amplifier
with Ac = 0, the output voltage is given by,
DIFRENTIAL AMP
Note that a differential amplifier is a
more general form of amplifier than
one with a single input; by grounding
one input of a differential amplifier, a
single-ended amplifier results.
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT OF
AN OP-AMP
SOME BASIC PARAMETERS
(Fairchild specs. for 741)
NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTORS
SPECS. FOR LM741C
EXPLAINING PARAMETERS
OP-AMP WITH –VE FEED BACK
INPUT OFFSET CURRENT:
The algebric difference between the currents of the two
inputs of op-amp.
For 741c it is 6nA max. For better performance this parameter
should be as low as possible.
CMRR= Ad /Acm
Acm=Vocm Vcm/
Or the ratio of output common mode voltage to the
Input common mode voltage.
With V1 = 0,
Vr4 = R4/(R3+R4)*V2
&
Vo2 = (R1+R2)/R1 * Vr4
= (R1+R2)/R1) * R4/(R3+R4) *V2
With R3 = R1 & R4 = R2,
Vo2 = R2/R1 * V2
With both signals present,
Vo = Vo2 + Vo1
= R2/R1 * V2 – R2/R1 * V1
= R2/R1 * (V2-V1)
R2 = R1, Vo = V2-V1
R2 > R1, O/P can be made amplified version
of the I/P difference.
INPUT RESISTANCES
INVERTING AND
NON INVERTING
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
Characteristics
The main characteristics that make
differential amplifiers so useful:
1- Their large gain
2- Ability to reject noise,
3- Fact that they amplify the difference
between two signals.
USES
Fundamental configuration in electronics.
Every op-amp has a differential amplifier as
its core.
Backbone of many communication circuits
such as mixers and modulators.
instrumentation amplifier.
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
If the voltage going into the 741 chip is
positive, it is negative when it comes out
of the 741. In other words it reverses
polarity (inverts polarity).
Two resistors are needed to make the 741
work as an amplifier, R1 and R2.
Hence the inverting amplifier produces
phase shift of 180 degree at the output as
was shown in fig.
INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
CONTINUED
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
If the voltage going
into the 741 chip is positive, it is positive when it
comes out of the 741. In other words it retains its
polarity (symmetrical polarity).
Two resistors are needed to make the 741 work
as an amplifier, R1 and R2.
Hence it produces an output of 0 degree phagse
shift or no phase shift.
NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER
CALCULATE THE GAIN
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Non-linear
configurations
i) Precision rectifier
ACTIVE
FILTERS
ACTIVE FILTERS
Active filters are implemented using a
combination of passive and active
(amplifying) components.
Operational amplifiers are frequently used
in active filter designs. These can have
high Q, and achieve resonance without
the use of inductors. However, their upper
frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth
of the amplifiers used.
FILTERS BY TRANSFER
FUNCTION
Low-pass filter
High-pass filter
Band-pass filter
Band-stop filter
First Order Low Pass Filter with
Op Amp
RESPONSE CURVE
First Order High Pass Filter with
Op Amp
RESPONSE CURVE
Band Pass Filter with Op Amp
RESPONSE CURVE
COMPARATOR
OP AMP AS
COMPARATOR
OP-AMP COMPARATOR AS SCHMIT TRIGGER
OP-AMP
COMPARATOR
AS SCHMIT
TRIGGER
OP-AMP COMPARATOR AS SCHMIT TRIGGER
LIGHT ACTIVATED ALTERATOR
The buzzer emits a tone when light falls
on the light dependent resistor. Resistor 2
controls the sensitivity of the circuit.
RC Oscillators
LC Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
Integrated circuit Oscillators
RC OSCILLATORS
PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
RC OSCILLATORS
WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
RC OSCILLATORS
THE twin-T OSCILLATOR
LC OSCILLATORS
THE COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
LC OSCILLATORS
THE ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR
THANKS
THANKS FOR
YOUR
PATIENCE
Current Mirroring
A current mirror is a circuit designed to copy a current
through one active device by controlling the current in another
active device of a circuit, keeping the output current constant
regardless of loading. The current being 'copied' can be, and
sometimes is, a varying signal current. Conceptually, an ideal
current mirror is simply an ideal current amplifier with unity
current gain.
The current through R1 is given by:
IR1 = IC1 + IB1 + IB2
Where IC1 is the collector current of Q1, IB1 is the base current of Q1, IB2 is the base
Current of Q2 The collector current of Q1 is given by:
IC1 = β0IB1
Where β0 is the DC current gain of Q1. If Q1 and Q2 are perfectly matched, β of Q2 will be: