Chapter 02

Basic Chemistry
 Basic Chemistry

Outline
Chemical Elements
 Atoms
 Isotopes
 Molecules and Compounds
Chemical Bonding
 Ionic and Covalent
 Hydrogen
Properties of Water
Acids and Bases
 Biosphere
All those regions of Earh’s waters, crust, and atmosphere in which organisms can exist
Levels of biological organization

Ecosystem
A community and its physical environment

Community
The populations of all species occupying the same area

Population
A group of individuals of the same kind (species) occupying a given area

Multicelled organism
An individual composed of specialize, interdependent cells most often organized in tissues, organs, and organ systems

Organ system

matters
Two or more organs interacting chemically, physically, or both in ways that contribute to survival of the whole organism

Living
Tissue
An organized group of cells and surrounding substances functioning together in a specialized activity

Cell
Smallest unit having the capacity to live and reproduce, independently or as part of a multicelled organism

Organelle
Inside all cells except bacteria, a membrane-bound sac or compartment for a separate, specialized task

Molecule
A unit in which two or more atoms of the same element or different ones are bonded together

Atom
Smallest unit of an element (a fundamental substance) that still retains the properties of that element

Subatomic particle
An electron, proton, or neutron; one of the three major particles of which atoms are composed
 Life and Chemistry: Small
Molecules
Water and the Origin of Life’s Chemistry
•

Atoms: The Constituents of Matter

•

Chemical Bonds: Linking Atoms Together

•

Chemical Reactions: Atoms Change Partners

•

Water: Structure and Properties

•

Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale

•

Properties of Molecules
•
 Water and the Origin of
Life’s Chemistry

• The earliest chemical signatures of life on

Earth are about 4 billion years old.

• The presence of water, possibly brought by

comets striking the Earth, was critical in
making conditions suitable for life.

• Environmental conditions conducive to life

evolved during the Hadean period.
Figure 2.1 A Geological Time Scale
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter
• All matter is composed of atoms.

• Each atom consists of at least one proton and

one electron.

• Atoms have mass. The mass comes mostly

from the proton and a neutrally charged body
called a neutron.

The Helium Atom

 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter
• Each element contains only one type of atom.

• Information on elements is arranged in logical

order in a table called the periodic table.

• The periodic table arranges elements left to

right based on their atomic number, and in
columns based on similarities in their
properties.
Figure 2.3 The Periodic Table (Part 1)
Figure 2.3 The Periodic Table (Part 2)
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• Each element has a unique atomic number

which is the number of protons found in an
atom of the element.

• The mass number is the number of protons

plus the number of neutrons.

• The mass number is used as the weight of the

atom, in units called daltons.

• Each element has a unique symbol: H is

hydrogen, C is carbon, Na is sodium, and Fe is
iron.
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• All atoms of an element have the same

number of protons, but not necessarily the
same number of neutrons.

• Atoms of the same element that have different

atomic weights are called isotopes.
Figure 2.4 Isotopes Have Different Numbers of Neutrons
Bohr Models of Atoms
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• Some isotopes are radioisotopes, which emit

energy as alpha, beta, and gamma radiation
from their nuclei.

• Radioactive decay transforms the original

atom into another atom, usually of another
element.
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• The region in which an electron travels is called

the electron’s orbital.

• The orbitals constitute a series of electron shells,

or energy levels, around the nucleus.

• Two electrons at most can occupy each orbital.

 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• The first shell is the innermost shell and has

just one orbital, called the s orbital.

• The s orbital fills first and its electrons have

the lowest energy.

• The second shell is next closest to the nucleus

and has one s and three p orbitals.

• The second shell can accommodate eight

electrons, two per orbital.
Figure 2.6 Electron Orbitals
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• The outermost shell of an atom determines how it

reacts with other atoms.

• Generally, if eight electrons are in the outer shell,

the atom is stable and does not tend to react.

• Atoms which do not have eight electrons in the

outermost shell will share, gain, or lose electrons
to arrive at a stable state.
 Atoms: The Constituents of
Matter

• The tendency of atoms to be stable when they

have eight electrons in their outermost shells
is called the rule of eight, or the octet rule.

• Hydrogen and phosphorus are exceptions to

the octet rule.
 Chemical Bonds: Linking
Atoms Together

• A molecule is two or more atoms bonded

together.

• A chemical bond is an attractive force that links

two atoms together.
 Chemical Bonds: Linking
Atoms Together

• A covalent bond is formed by sharing of a pair

of electrons between two atoms.

• In hydrogen molecules (H2), a pair of electrons

share a common orbital and spend equal
amounts of time around each of the two nuclei.

• The nuclei stay some distance from each other

due to mutually repelling positive charges.
Figure 2.8 Electrons Are Shared in Covalent Bonds

Properties of Molecules
 Chemical Bonds: Linking
Atoms Together

• Molecules made up of more than one

type of atoms are called compounds.
• Every compound has a molecular weight
that is the sum of all atoms in the
molecule.
 Chemical Bonds: Linking
Atoms Together

• Covalent bonds are very strong.

• Each covalent bond has a predictable length, angle,
and direction, which makes it possible to predict
the three-dimensional structures of molecules.
• A double covalent bond occurs when atoms share
two pairs of electrons; in triple covalent bonds
atoms share three electron pairs.
Figure 2.10 Covalent Bonding With Carbon

Properties of Molecules
 Chemical foundations for
• Cells
Atom: the small particle retained the properties of an element
• An atom consists of proton(s), electron(s), and neutron(s)

Oxygen Hydrogen
atom atom
Electron
H20

Proton

Animation: Atomic structure (Chapter 2-1, Figure 2).

29
 Basic Chemistry

Atomic Structure

Atoms - Smallest particles of elements

Atoms composed of three types of subatomic
particles
 Protons
­ Positive charge
Helium
­ In nucleus
 Neutrons
­ Neutral charge
­ Also found in nucleus
 Electrons
­ Negatively charge
­ Orbit nucleus
 Periodic Table (Revisited)

Vertical columns indicate

number of electrons
in outermost shell

VII
I
I
1 2
1 H I II I V VI He
Horizontal 1.008 I I V
V
I I 4.003
periods 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

indicate 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
total 6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
number 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
of electron 22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95

shells 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60
 Basic Chemistry

Periodic Table
Elements grouped in periodic table based on
characteristics
 Vertical columns = groups; chemically similar
 Horizontal rows = periods; larger and larger
I VIII
1 Groups 2
1 H He
1.008 II III IV V VI VII 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B
Periods

C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60
 Basic Chemistry

Chemical Elements

Matter:
 Refers to anything that has mass and
occupies space
 Only 92 naturally occurring fundamental types
of matter – 92 Elements
Organisms composed primarily (98%) of only
six elements
 Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Phosphorus, Sulfur
 CHNOPS
 Basic Chemistry

Elements and Compounds

Molecule - Two or more atoms bonded
together
 If all atoms in molecule are of the same
element
­ Material is still an element
­ O2, H2, N2, etc.
 If at least one atom is from a different element
­ Material formed is a compound
­ CO2, H2O, C6H12O6, etc.
­ Characteristics dramatically different from
constituent elements
 From Atoms to Molecules
• Two or more atoms bond form a molecule H+
Na Na+ Na­Cl
covalent
Cl Cl-
NaCl bond ionic
2N N­N N bond
2

H+

• Three kinds of
bond: C2+ N3­
– Ionic bond
– Covalent bond
– Hydrogen bond

Animation: CH4 ionic bond (Chapter 3-1, Figure 1), C2H6 covalent bond ( Figure 2),
35
 Types of Bonds: Basic Chemistry

Ionic Bonding

Ionic Bonds
­ Atoms “want” 8 electrons in outer shell
 If have < 4 outers, desire to donate them
 If have > 4 outers, desire to receive more
 Consider two elements from opposite ends
of periodic table
­ Element from right side:
 Has 7 electrons in outer shell
 “Desperately wants” one more (7+1=8)
­ Element from left side:
 Has only 1 electron in outer shell
 “Desperately wants” to donate it (1-1=0=8)
 Types of Bonds: Basic Chemistry

Ionic Bond Example

Sodium:
 From left end
 Has 1 outer electron
Chlorine:
 From right end of table
 Has 7 outer electrons
In reaction, Na completely gives up its outer
electron to Cl
 Na now a positive ion and Cl a negative ion
 Dissimilar charges now bind ions together
 Forms sodium chloride
­ An ionic compound
­ NaCl table salt)
Formation of Sodium
Chloride
 Types of Bonds: Basic Chemistry

Covalent Bonds
When atoms are horizontally closer together in the
periodic table
 The electrons are not permanently transferred from
one atom to the other like in NaCl
 A pair of electrons from the outer shell will “time
share” with one atom and then the other
 This also causes the atoms to remain together
 Known as covalent bonding

Sometimes two par of electrons are shared between

atoms – a double covalent bond
Covalently Bonded
Molecules
 Types of Bonds: Basic Chemistry

Hydrogen Bonds
Water (H2O or H–O–H) is a polar molecule
 Electrons spend more time with O than H’s
 H’s become slightly +, O slightly –
When polar molecules are dissolved in water
 The H’s of water molecules are attracted to the
negative parts of the solute molecules
 Results in a weak bond – the hydrogen bond
 Easily broken, but many together can be quite
strong
Water Molecule
Hydrogen
Bonding
 The Chemistry of Water: Basic Chemistry

Heat Capacity
Water has a high heat capacity
 Temperature = rate of vibration of molecules

 Apply heat to liquid

­ Molecules bounce faster

­ Increases temperature

 But, when heat applied to water

­ Hydrogen bonds restrain bouncing

­ Temperature rises more slowly per unit heat

­ Water at a given temp. has more heat than most liquids

 Properties of Water: Basic Chemistry

Heat of Vaporization
High heat of vaporization
 To raise water from 98 to 99 ºC; ~1 calorie
 To raise water from 99 to 100 ºC; ~1 calorie
 However, large numbers of hydrogen bonds must be
broken to evaporate water
 To raise water from 100 to 101 ºC; ~540 calories!
This is why sweating (and panting) cools
 Evaporative cooling is best when humidity is low
because evaporation occurs rapidly
 Evaporative cooling works poorest when humidity is
high because evaporation occurs slowly
Cooling Basic Chemistry
of Animals
 Properties of Water: Basic Chemistry

Water as a Solvent

Solutions consist of:

 A solvent (the most abundant part) and
 A solute (less abundant part) that is dissolved in
the solvent

Ionic compounds dissociate in water

 Na+
­ Attracted to negative (O) end of H2O
­ Each Na+ completely surrounded by H2O
 Cl-
­ Attracted to positive (H2) end of H2O
­ Each Cl- completely surrounded by H2O
 Properties of Water: Basic Chemistry

Heat of Fusion

Heat of fusion (melting)

 To raise ice from -2 to -1 ºC; ~1 calorie
 To raise water from -1 to 0 ºC; ~1 calorie
 To raise water from 0 to 1 ºC; ~80 calories!
This is why ice at 0 ºC keeps stuff cold MUCH
longer than water at 1 ºC
This is why ice is used for cooling
 NOT because ice is cold
 But because it absorbs so much heat before it
will warm by one degree
at Various Basic Chemistry
Temperatures
 Properties of Water: Basic Chemistry

Uniqueness of Ice

Frozen water less dense than liquid water

 Otherwise, oceans and deep lakes would fill

with ice from the bottom up

 Ice acts as an insulator on top of a frozen

body of water

 Melting ice draws heat from the environment

 Density of Water
at Various Temperatures
A Pond in Winter
Water as a Transport Medium
 pH of Water: Basic Chemistry

Acids

Acids
 Dissociate in water and release
hydrogen ions (H+)
 Sour to taste
 Hydrochloric acid (stomach acid) is a
gas with symbol HCl
­ In water, it dissociates into H+ and Cl-
­ Dissociation of HCl is almost total, therefore
it is a strong acid
 pH of Water: Basic Chemistry

Bases
Bases:
 Either take up hydrogen ions (H+) or
release hydroxide ions (OH-)
 Bitter to taste
 Sodium hydroxide (drain cleaner) is a
solid with symbol NaOH
­ In water, it dissociates into Na+ and OH-
­ Dissociation of NaOH is almost total,
therefore it is a strong base
 Basic Chemistry

pH Scale
pH scale used to indicate acidity and
alkalinity of a solution.
 Values range from 0-14
­ 0 to <7 = Acidic
­ 7 = Neutral
­ >7 to 14 = Basic (or alkaline)
 Logarithmic Scale
­ Each unit change in pH represents a change of
10X
­ pH of 4 is 10X as acidic as pH of 5
­ pH of 10 is 100X more basic than pH of 8
The pH
Scale
 Basic Chemistry

Review
Chemical Elements
 Atoms
 Isotopes
 Molecules and Compounds
Chemical Bonding
 Ionic and Covalent
 Hydrogen
Properties of Water
Acids and Bases
 Ending Slide Chapter 02

Basic Chemistry