BA 260

RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAEMENT SCIENCE

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
POPULATION
CHOOSING A SAMPLE
THE DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
THE DIFFERENT WAYS OF DERIVING SAMPLE
THE DIFFERENT PROBABILIT SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
THE DIFFERENT NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE

POPULATION
In data gathering phase, the information is taken from a unit, which is part of a
collection of all such units called a population.
To illustrate:
If the data to be collected are the test results in BA260, the smallest unit under
investigation is a BA261 student and the population is the set of all students who
are taking BA260.
If you are interested in the number of television sets in Ozamiz City, the unit from
which data is collected can be a household, and the population is all the
households in Ozamiz City.
Population
A population is a collection of all units from which data is to be collected.
A unit in a population is also called an element of the population.
Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from
everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a
representative sample (or subset) of that population.
Composed of Two Groups
Target Population
Accessible population
1. Target population (universe)
The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to
generalize the study findings
Meet set of criteria of interest to researcher
Examples:
All people with AIDS
All low birth weight infants
All pregnant teens
2. Accessible population
the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access;
may be a subset of the target population
May be limited to region, state, city, county, or institution
Examples:
All people with AIDS in the metropolitan Manila area
All low birth weight infants admitted to the Misamis University Medical Center
(MUMC)
All pregnant teens in Ozamiz City


Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the
information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. The
target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and
time.
An elementis the object about which or from which the information is
desired, e.g., the respondent.
A sampling unitis an element, or a unit containing the element, that is
available for selection at some stage of the sampling process.
Extentrefers to the geographical boundaries.
Timeis the time period under consideration.
Sample
It is a subset or a representative part of the population.

The sample must be:
1. representative of the population;
2. appropriately sized (the larger the better);
3. unbiased;
4. random (selections occur by chance);
The above criteria are interrelated.
Frame
It is a listing of all the elements of the population.
A set of items or events possible to measure.
Is the list from which the potential respondents are drawn
Is needed so that everyone in the population is identified so they will have an
equal opportunity for selection as a subject (element).
Examples:
A list of all low birth weight infants admitted to the Misamis University Medical
Center (MUMC).
A list of all pregnant teens in the city of Ozamiz.
Census
It is a process when the information is gathered for all units in the population.
Primary data is collected from every member of the target population.

Census Sample
A census study occurs if the entire population is very small or it is reasonable to
include the entire population (for other reasons).
It is called a census sample because data is gathered on every member of the
population.
Sampling or Sample Survey
It is a process when only a part of a population is used to obtain data.
The process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviours, or other
elements with which to conduct a study.
Why sample?
The population of interest is usually too large to attempt to survey all of its
members.
A carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population.
The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn.
When the size of the population is large, a census becomes long and tedious
process aside from having a prohibitive cost. To save on cost and time, a sample
survey is a convenient alternative. The information derived from the data in the sample
is then used to make some generalizations about the population. However, in making
this option, errors are unavoidable.

Different Sampling Techniques

1. Probability Sampling
- is one in which every unit in the Population has a chance (greater than zero) of
being selected in the Sample.

Probability samples are based on the mathematical theory of probability.

The surest way of providing equal probability of selection is to use the principle of
random selection.

This involves listing all members of the population (this list is called a sampling frame)
and then, in effect, 'pulling names out of a hat'; although you can use a random number
table to do this.

There are still likely to be differences between the sample and the total population, but
using a probability sample means that this should be by chance alone.


Advantages of Probability Sampling

Probability sampling does not depend upon the existence of detailed information
about the universe for its effectiveness.

Probability sampling provides estimates which are essentially unbiased and have
measurable precision.

It is possible to evaluate the relative efficiency various sample designs only when
probability sampling is used.

Probability Sampling Includes:

Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Multi-stage sampling

2. Non - Probability Sampling
- Any Sampling methods where some elements of population have no chance
of selection, or where the probability of selection cant be accurately determined.

Principles of non-probability sampling

There are theoretical and practical reasons for using non-probability sampling.
Theoretical reasons
Non-probability sampling techniques can often be viewed as an inferior
alternative to probability sampling techniques.

Non-probability sampling techniques can often be viewed in such a way because
units are not selected for inclusion in a sample based on random selection, unlike
probability sampling techniques.

As a result, researchers following a quantitative research design often feel that they are
forced to use non-probability sampling techniques because of some inability to use
probability sampling (e.g., the lack of access to a list of the population being studied).

Practical reasons

Non-probability sampling is often used because the procedures used to select units for
inclusion in a sample are much easier, quicker and cheaper when compared with
probability sampling.

Types of non-probability sampling

There are five types of non-probability sampling techniques:

Quota sampling
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Self-selection sampling
Snowball sampling

Probability sampling
Involves random selection in choosing the subjects or elements. Randomization
or random choice, is the hallmark of probability sampling. This is the process of
giving every member or each element of the population an equal chance to be
included in the sample representing the total population. This is the method of
choice for obtaining a representative sample.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified random sampling
3. Cluster sampling
4. systematic sampling


1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
All elements are enumerated and listed in a sampling frame ( the technical name
for the list of elements from which the sample will be chosen) and selection is
done at random.
Each element has an equal chance or probability of being chosen as subjects of
the study. Simple random sampling is the basic technique of probability
sampling.
Random sample from whole population.
it is considered fair and therefore allows findings to be generalized to the whole
population from which the sample was taken.
It is sometimes called the lottery method
EXAMPLE: Selecting a simple random sample of students
A simple random sample of 25 students is to be selected from a school of 500 students
Using a list of all 500 students, each student is given a number (1 to 500), and these
numbers are written on small pieces of paper. All the 500 papers are put in a box, after
which the box is shaken vigorously to ensure randomisation. Then, 25 papers are taken
out of the box, and the numbers are recorded. The students belonging to these
numbers will constitute the simple random sample.
ADVANTAGE:
Highly representative if all subjects participate; the ideal.
DISADVANTAGES:
Not possible without complete list of population members;
potentially uneconomical to achieve;
can be disruptive to isolate members from a group;
time-scale may be too long, data/sample could change

2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The researcher divides the population into two or more homogenous strata or
subsets from which an appropriate number of elements (equal or unequal
number) are selected at random. Although stratified random sampling requires
more labour and effort than simple random sampling, it enables researchers to
sharpen the precision and to improve representativeness of the final sample.
Stratification may be based on common demographic attributes such as age,
gender, educational level, educational attainment, income level.
Random sample from identifiable groups (strata), subgroups, etc.

EXAMPLE: Stratified sampling of households
A survey is conducted on household water supply in a district comprising 2,000
households, of which 400 (or 20%) are urban and 1,600 (or 80%) are rural. It is
suspected that in urban areas the access to safe water sources is much more
satisfactory than in rural areas (Figure 15.5). A decision is made to sample 200
households altogether, but to include 100 urban households and 100 rural households.

ADVANTAGE:
Can ensure that specific groups are represented, even proportionally, in the
sample(s) (e.g., by gender), by selecting individuals from strata list.
DISADVANTAGES:
More complex, requires greater effort than simple random; strata must be
carefully defined
3. CLUSTER OR MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
The researcher selects random samples from larger(general population) to
successively smaller units using either the simple random or stratified random
method.
Although cluster sampling tends to be less accurate than simple or stratified
random sampling, it is more economical and practical, particularly with a large
and widely dispersed population.
Random samples of successive clusters of subjects (e.g., by institution) until
small groups are chosen as units


ADVANTAGES:
Possible to select randomly when no single list of population members exists, but
local lists do;
data collected on groups may avoid introduction of confounding by isolating
members
DISADVANTAGE:
Clusters in a level must be equivalent and some natural ones are not for
essential characteristics (e.g., geographic: numbers equal, but unemployment
rates differ)
4. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
The researcher first randomly picks the first item or subject from the population.
Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the list.
EXAMPLE:
if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a population of
50,000 using systematic sampling, you would simply select every 50th person,
since 50,000/1,000 = 50.
ADVANTAGE:
The main advantage of using systematic sampling is its simplicity. It allows the
researcher to add a systematic element into the random selection of subjects, yet
it is very easy to do.
DISADVANTAGE:
the process of selecting the sample can interact with a hidden periodic trait within
the population.
The non-probability sampling technique
Learning objectives:
Develop an understanding about different NON PROBABILITY sampling
methods
Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling
Advantage and disadvantage of the different techniques

Some terms to remember
Sampling the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the
entire population
Population the entire aggregation of cases in which a researcher is interested
Sample a subset of population elements
Element the basic unit about which information is collected
Sampling design Used in the selection of a sample within a population intended to
yield knowledge, especially for the purposes of making
predictions based on statistics.
Probability Sampling Involves random selection of elements in which each
element has a chance of being selected
Non Probability Sampling Involves non-random methods in the selection of elements in
which not all have equal chances of being selected
Sampling Bias The over-representation or under-representation of some
segment of the population in
terms of a characteristics relevant to the research question

Non Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Snowball Sampling
3. Purposive Sampling
4. Quota Sampling
The Non- Probability Sampling Technique
A big part of the population is ignored in the selection of respondents or they
have a zero chance of being selected.
Any sampling method where some elements of population have no chance of
selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'),
or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves
the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of
interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not allows the estimation of
sampling errors.
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first
person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this
is a nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the
door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more
likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the
interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.
Convenience Sampling
A researcher decides on the respondents of the study on the basis of
convenience.
Purposive Sampling
Sampling respondents are chosen based on the judgment or opinion of the
researcher or upon the advice of certain experts
This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched
Quota Sampling
Is like a stratified random sampling but without randomization.
The population is normally subdivided into subgroups, like gender or year level of
students
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most
helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone
gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and
quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many years

Snowball Sampling
Is done with the help of study subjects to choose other potential subjects.
A useful tool for building networks and increasing the number of participants.
Depends greatly on the initial contacts and the connections made.