Planet Formation

Topic:

Turbulence






Lecture by: C.P. Dullemond
The idea behind the -formula

turb
LV L
eddy
V
eddy
Viscosity is length times velocity:
Maximum height of an eddy:
L
eddy

L
H H
Maximum velicity of an eddy:
V
eddy

V
c
s
c
s

turb

L

V
c
s
H
L

V
c
s
2
W
K

c
s
2
W
K

V
1
L
1
1
The idea behind the -formula
t
eddy
L
eddy
/ V
eddy
Time scales:
Maximum height of an eddy:
L
eddy

L
H H
Maximum velicity of an eddy:
V
eddy

V
c
s
c
s
t
eddy


L
H

V
c
s

V
W
K

V
t
orbit
2

L

H

Simulations show:
t
eddy

t
orbit
2
Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number:
Re
L
eddy
V
eddy

mol

turb

mol
Typically Re>>1
Turbulent eddies cannot have smaller LV than:
L
eddy
V
eddy
>
mol
Re >1
i.e.
because such eddies are quickly viscously dissipated.
Kolmogorov Theory of
Turbulence:

The Turbulent Cascade
Kolmogorov turbulence
Eddies contain eddies, which contain eddies,
which contain eddies, which contain eddies, which contain eddies, which contain eddies, which contain eddies,
which contain eddies, which contain eddies, which contain
log(k)
log(l)
energy input
cascade
thermal energy dissipation
k
2
l
Kolmogorov turbulence
log(E(k))
log(k)
energy input
(turbulent driving)
energy dissipation
(molecular viscosity)
at the Kolmogorov scale
Kolmogorov turbulent cascade
(must be a powerlaw!)
k
in
<<< k

k
in
k

Kolmogorov turbulence
For scales
k
in
< k < k

l
in
>l >l

i.e.
we can
use dimensional analysis to get the powerlaw slope. The question
is: What combination of k and gives E? Dimensions (using
erg=gram cm
2
s
-2)
:
k
1
length

length
2
time
3
Driving turbulence with energy input [erg/gram.s]
E(k)
length
3
time
2
Only possible combination with the right dimensions:
E(k)
2/3
k
5/3
Kolmogorov turbulence
l length
length
2
time
3
v
length
time
Only possible combination with the right dimensions:
v ( l)
1/3

1/3
Now a similar dimensional analysis for the typical velocity v
of turbulent eddies at each scale l=2/k:
Kolmogorov turbulence
l length
length
2
time
3
v
length
time
Only possible combination with the right dimensions:
t
eddy

l
v

1/3
l
2/3
Eddy turn-over time scale as a function of l=2/k:
So while the biggest eddies (driving scale) have turn-over time
scales ~ t
kepler
, the smaller eddies have shorter turn-over time
scales.
Kolmogorov turbulence
Contribution of subsubsub-eddies to the viscosity:

turb,scale
(l) lv l( l)
1/3
l
4/3
As you see: for ever smaller l (ever bigger k) the contribution to the
viscosity becomes smaller.

The viscosity is dominated by the biggest eddies!

However, the small eddies may play a role later, for the motion of
dust/rocky particles.
Kolmogorov turbulence
1 Re(l

)
l

v(l

mol

1/3
l

4/3

mol
This gives the Kolmogorov dissipation scale:
l

mol
3

1/4
At which scale does the turbulence dissipate (i.e. what is the
value of k

)? Answer: at the scale where Re(k)=1:

For a real Kolmogorov turbulent cascade to exist, one must have:
l

<<l
in
L
eddy
Kolmogorov turbulence
Back to the energy input : Let us check if this is consistent with
the viscous heating coefficient Q
+
we derived in the previous chapter.
In the cascade region we have (see few slides back):
v
eddy
(l
eddy
) ( l
eddy
)
1/3
Let us now make the bold step to assume that this also holds for
the biggest eddies (i.e. that the Kolmogorov powerlaw extents
to the largest eddies):
For V
eddy
and L
eddy
we have expressions from -turbulence theory:



3
V

L
c
s
3
H


3
V

L
c
s
2
W
K
W
K
2
V
eddy
( L
eddy
)
1/3

V
3
eddy
L
eddy
Kolmogorov turbulence


3
V

L
c
s
2
W
K
W
K
2

V
c
s
2
W
K
W
K
2

turb
W
K
2
We also know from viscous disk theory:
Q
+
S
3
4
MW
K
2

9
4
S
turb
W
K
2
It follows that the two formulae can only be mutually consistent if:

3
2
1

V

L

(keep in mind, however, the approximations made!)
Estimates and numbers
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
M 10
7
M
sun
/ yr
Typical accretion rate:
Surface density powerlaw unknown, but from previous chapter
theoretical considerations (viscous heating) give a good estimate:
T
midplane
(1AU) 400K
With a mean molecular weight of 2.3 this leads to c
s
1.2 km/s
We have no idea what the value of is (this is one of the big
unknowns in the entire disk & planet formation theory), but
simulations suggest =0.01, so let us take this value.
The pressure scale height then becomes: H 0.04AU
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
M 10
7
M
sun
/yr, c
s
1200 m/s, =0.01, H=0.04AU
We can now calculate at 1 AU:
turb

turb

c
s
2
W
K
7.210
14
cm
2
s
Large eddy size:
L
eddy

c
s
W
K
610
10
cm = 0.004AU
Large eddy velocity:
V
eddy
c
s
120 m/s
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
(r)
M
3
turb
930
g
cm
2
M 10
7
M
sun
/yr, c
s
1200 m/s, =0.01, H=0.04AU

turb
7 10
14
cm
2
s
1
For a steady-state disk the surface density follows:
The midplane density then follows with the scale height H:
(r, z 0)

2 H
6 10
10
g
cm
3
n(r, z 0) 1.6 10
14
cm
3
(using =2.3)
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
Mass between 0.8 AU and 1.3 AU (very rough estimate):
M
disk
(0.8 1.3AU) (1.3
2
0.8
2
)AU
2
114 M
Earth
Note that this is in the form of gas + 1...2 % dust. Just about enough
to form Earth. Seem thus to be ok!
Mass within 1 large turbulent eddy:
M
eddy

4
3
L
eddy
3
10
4
M
Earth
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
M 10
7
M
sun
/yr, c
s
1200 m/s, =0.01, H=0.04AU
T 400 K, =6 10
10 g
cm
3
, n 1.6 10
14
cm
3
The molecular viscosity is then:

molec

mfp
c
s
3.7 10
5
cm
2
s
Molecular cross section of H
2
= 2x10
-15
cm
2

Mean free path for gas is:
mfp

1
n
coll
3 cm
The Reynolds number of the turbulence is thus:
Re

turb

molec
2 10
9
Estimates for disks & turbulence @ 1 AU
Now calculate Komogorov scale. Remember:

turb,scale
(l) lv l( l)
1/3
l
4/3
At the largest eddies we have

turb
LV Re 2 10
9
At the smallest (Kolmogorov) scale (l=l

) we have Re=1. So:

L
eddy
l

4/3

turb

molec
2 10
9
l

10
7
L
eddy
l

60 m
v

60 cm/s t

100 s
4
3
l
3

700 g
How turbulence is (presumably)
driven:

The Magnetorotational Instability
(ref: Book by Phil Armitage)
Magnetorotational Instability
Highly simplified pictographic explanation:
If a (weak) pull exists between two
gas-parcels A and B on adjacent
orbits, the effect is that A moves
inward and B moves outward: a pull
causes them to move apart!
A
B
The lower orbit of A causes an
increase in its velocity, while B
decelerates. This enhances their
velocity difference! This is positive
feedback: an instability.
A
B
Causes turbulence in the disk
Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
Now lets do this a bit better. We follow a discussion from the
book of Armitage.
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (shear instability):
Photo credit: Beverly Shannon (1999)
Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
However, in a rotating system the rotation can stabilize the
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. The Rayleigh criterion says:
dl
dr

d
dr
r
2
W
( )
< 0
instability
A Keplerian disk has:
dl
K
dr

d
dr
r
2
W
K
( )

1
2
rW
K
> 0
Keplerian disks
are Rayleigh-
Stable
Magnetorotational Instability
Let us study the stability of a disk with a weak vertical magnetic
field. We will use perturbation theory and we will assume
ideal MHD. The equations for ideal MHD are:

t
+ v
( )
0
Dv
Dt

v
t
+v v
1

P+
B
2
8

1
4
B
( )
B
B
t
vB
( )
Magnetorotational Instability
Now lets transform this to cylindrical coordinates. This is not
trivial. But lets do this for the equation of motion of a single
fluid element under influence of a force-per-mass f:
X r cos
Y rsin
X r cos r sin
Y rsin +r cos
X r cos r sin r sin r sin r
2
cos
Y r sin +r cos +r cos +r cos r
2
sin
Dv
Dt
f
Since and one could write let us write out: v x Dv/Dt x
Magnetorotational Instability
X r r
2
Y 2r +r
Taking our equations at =0:
The momentum equations for the fluid parcel thus become:
r r
2

d
dr
+ f
r
2r +r f

f are the forces coupling

the gas to the B-field.
Note that we can write out the gravity term:

d
dr

d
dr
GM
r

GM
r
2
which is the well-known
inverse square force law
Magnetorotational Instability
Now define a local (x,y) coordinate system:
r r
0
+ x
W t +
y
r
0
Inserting this into the previous equations, and discarding quadratic
terms, yields (after some calculation):
x 2W y 3
GM
r
0
3
x + f
x
y +2W x f
y

GM
r
2

GM
r
0
2
+2
GM
r
0
3
x +O(x
2
)

2
W +
y
r
0

2
W
2
+2W
y
r
0
+O(y
2
)
Magnetorotational Instability
Now lets look at an (x,y) displacement varying with height z
and time t:
x(z, t) x
1
e
i( t kz)
y(z, t) y
1
e
i( t kz)
Remember now that gas displacements carry along the B-field.
Lets assume a weak vertical initial B-field. Then the displacements
create x- and y- components of this B-field:
B
x
(z, t) ikB
z
x
1
e
i( t kz)
B
y
(z, t) ikB
z
y
1
e
i( t kz)
Magnetorotational Instability
B
x
(z, t) ikB
z
x
1
e
i( t kz)
B
y
(z, t) ikB
z
y
1
e
i( t kz)
These produce a magnetic tension force (from ):
1
4
B
( )
B
f
x
(z, t) (kv
A
)
2
x
1
e
i( t kz)
f
y
(z, t) (kv
A
)
2
y
1
e
i( t kz)
v
A

B
z
2
4
Alfven
velocity
Magnetorotational Instability

2
x
1
2i W y
1
3
GM
r
0
3
x
1
(kv
A
)
2
x
1

2
y
1
+2i W x
1
(kv
A
)
2
y
1
The equation of motion then becomes:
Combining them yields the following dispersion relation:

4

2
GM
r
0
3
+2(kv
A
)
2

+(kv
A
)
2
(kv
A
)
2
3
GM
r
0
3

0
Magnetorotational Instability
Most unstable
mode
Stable Unstable
Most unstable mode:
kv
A
15 / 4
( )
W
kv
A
> 3W Stable for:
Magnetorotational Instability
kv
A
> 3W Stable for:
Conclusion: If the field is too strong, the disk is stable. So
MRI works only for weak magnetic fields!
Another conclusion: MRI does not work for too small wavelengths.
There is a minimum scale that can be driven. There is also a
certain scale where the driving is the strongest.
Lets assume magnetic equipartition:
Then the instability occurs at:
v
A
c
s
c
s
W
K
<
3
k
>
2
3
H > H
Scale larger than
disk thickness:
Equipartition disk=stable
Magnetorotational Instability
Note: This instability works only if the disk is sufficiently ionized
for ideal MHD equations to be valid.

Only a tiny bit of ionization is required.

But even that can be problematic, since dust grains very
efficiently vacuum clean away free electrons.

This leads to so called dead zones in disks.

The debate for what causes turbulence in disks remains wide open
today.