BES203 CONSTRUCTION III

LECTURE 1: GROUND
INVESTIGATION
July 2014


Uhudhu Ahmed
B. Eng. (Civil) (Hons)

1
Contents
1. Need for a Ground Investigation
2. Primary Investigation
Surface evaluation
Subsurface investigation
3. Nature of Ground Material
Material classification and allowable bearing pressure
Cohesion less - Sand and gravel
Cohesive - Silt and clay
Rock
4. Subsurface Sampling
5. Sounding rod, auger, test pits, wash boring, drilling and geophysical
testing.
6. Typical Geotechnical Test Bore Information
7. Ground water level
8. Surface Testing
9. Tutorial Questions
2
Need for a Ground
Investigation
Design requirements of the proposed structure
require a detailed site investigation
Ensure proper planning and design of the
proposed structure
Many projects exceed construction designers
budgets and completion dates because of
unforeseen problems during the excavation and
construction of their foundations.
Geotechnical experts retained by the project
managers to establish the parameters that will be
used in the design of the building foundations
3
Need for a Ground Investigation
The amount of testing done on the site depends on a number
of conditions;
Size and complexity of the structure,
Type of soil encountered,
Proximity of the proposed structure to existing buildings,
The level of the groundwater table are the more
The information is then passed on to the structural designers,
who must decide on the type and size of foundations that will
be used.
The site evaluation can be considered in two phases
Primary investigation which deals with the evaluation of the
physical state of the building site during the design stages of the
project
Secondary investigation which is done by the general contractor
just before the actual construction process begins
4
Primary Investigation
5
Stage 1: Surface evaluation of the building site
Normally consists of a topographic survey to establish
grades for drainage, landscaping requirements, and the
placement of services.
Stage 2: Subsurface investigation
Consists of the evaluation of the soil below the surface to
establish criteria for the foundation requirements of the
proposed structure
Standard procedures are followed in all stages of
the soil investigation to ensure that valid results are
obtained from the samples when analyzed in the
laboratory
Surface evaluation
6
The topography of the site is of prime concern
to both the designer and the builder in a
surface investigation
The structure must be designed to complement
the site
Builder must be aware of the conditions under
which construction must proceed
The survey information gathered at this time can
be used by the contractor to estimate fill and
excavation quantities
Surface evaluation
7
Common Questions
Is the site relatively level?
Will it be necessary to remove large quantities of
earth or, alternatively, will extensive fill material be
required?
Are there any rock outcrops that will require blasting?
Is there surface water to be drained and will the site
have drainage problems in the future?
Has the site been used as a landfill site in the past?
Each condition must be evaluated and dealt with
in the surface evaluation, for each will ultimately
have a bearing on the cost of excavation and the
type of foundation required.

Subsurface investigation
8
Large buildings impose substantial loads on their foundations and depend
on soil of good bearing capacitybedrock in some casesto provide the
necessary support.
The depth at which this bearing is available will dictate the type and cost of
the foundation.
Standard laboratory tests done on subsurface samples provide the
necessary data from which the load-bearing properties of the soil can be
established
If the project is feasible from this standpoint, this investigation will help to
estimate the cost and will influence the design of the foundations
The methods used in obtaining subsurface soil samples vary significantly
depending on the complexity and size of the proposed structure
For shallow foundations, subsurface samples may be obtained from a simple test
pit only several feet deep
For deep foundations, samples are usually obtained at various depths up to 100
ft (30 m) or more below the surface. To obtain samples at these depths, a drill rig
is used to provide the test borehole, and special methods are used for extracting
the required samples.
Nature of Ground Materials
9
To make use of the samples taken during
subsurface exploration, it is necessary to
understand something of the nature of soil, types
of soil, and how they react under various
circumstances.
Soil denotes all the fragmented material found in
the earths crust
Includes material ranging from individual rocks of
various sizes, through sand and gravel, to fine-
grained clays
particles of sand and gravel are visible to the naked
eye
particles of some fine-grained clays cannot be
distinguished even when viewed through low-powered
microscopes

Nature of Ground Materials
10
Soil Formations
Eolian soil which were deposited by wind
Glacial Till a mixture of sand, gravel, silt, and
clay, moved and deposited by glaciers
Alluvial soil which were deposited by actions of
water
Residual soils consist of rock particles that have
not been moved from their original location but
are products of the deterioration of solid rock
Soil Classification
11
Boulders: 12 in. (300 mm) or larger in diameter.
Cobbles: larger than 3 in. (75 mm), smaller than12
in. (300 mm).
Gravel: smaller than 3 in. (75 mm) and larger than
#4 (5 mm) sieve (approximately in.).
Sand: particles smaller than #4 (5 mm) sieve and
larger than #200 (630 m) sieve (40,000 openings
per square inch).
Silts: particles smaller than 0.02 mm and
largerthan 0.002 mm in diameter.
Clays: particles smaller than 0.002 mm indiameter
Soil Classification
12
For engineering purposes, soils are loosely grouped into categories that reflect their
ability to support loads
Cohesion less soils include sand and gravelsoils in which the particles have little or
no tendency to stick together under pressure.
Cohesive soils mayinclude dense silt, medium dense silt, hard clay, stiffclay, firm
clay, and soft clay. The particles of these soils tend to stick together, particularly with
the addition of water.
Miscellaneous soils include glacial till and conglomerate. The latter is a mixture of
sand, gravel, and clay, with the clay acting as a cement to hold the particles together.
Rock is subdivided into massive, foliated, sedimentary, and soft or shattered.
Massive rocks are very hard; have no visible bedding planes or laminations; and have widely
spaced, nearly vertical or horizontal joints. They are comparable to the best concrete.
Foliated rocks are also hard but have sloping joints, which preclude equal compressive
strength in all directions. They are comparable to sound structural concrete.
Sedimentary rocks include hard shales, sandstones, limestones, and siltstones, with softer
components. Rocks in this category may be likened to good brick masonry.
Soft or shattered rocks include those that are soft or broken but not displaced from their
natural beds. They do not become plastic when wet and are comparable to poor brick
masonry
Relative Bearing Strength of
Soil
13
Table 1:
Allowable
Bearing
Capacity for
Different
Types of
Soils (Andes
and Smith,
2001).
The given
values are
very general
in nature and
should not be
used for
specific
applications.


Settlement of Soil
14
Subsurface soil, in its natural state, is compacted by the weight of overlying
soil and, in many instances, has been consolidated by geologic forces such
as the pressures due to glaciers
When soil is disturbed, as is the case during excavation, the release in
pressure and the rearrangement of the soil particles result in an increase in
volume or bulk.
When this soil is returned to the excavation in this expanded or bulked
state, and unless some special measures are taken during backfilling, time
and weather will bring about a return to the original volume.
This shrinkage of the soil back to its near natural condition results in
settlement of the overlying soils and any structures that may have been
placed on the unconsolidated material.
the amount of settlement can be minimized by the use of mechanical
compaction equipment during placement.
Tests have shown that mixing a certain amount of water with the soil
enables the particles to realign, reducing the voids that existed between the
particles during the bulked state
Settlement of Soil
15
If soil can be placed and compacted with an optimum amount
of water, excessive shrinkage and settlement due to under
compaction are less likely to occur.
When structures are placed on fill or remediated material, it is
important that the material has undergone sufficient uniform
compaction to a specified density to minimize non uniform or
differential settlements
To control the amount of settlement, it is recommended that
the fill material be placed in layers, not more than 6 in. (150
mm) thick at or near its optimum moisture content, to achieve
its maximum density
Each layer must be uniformly compacted by some type of
compaction machinery to ensure that the soil is sufficiently
densified
Subsurface Sampling
16
The purpose of subsurface exploration is
primarily to establish three things:
to obtain samples at various depths below the
surface for the purpose of laboratory evaluation to
establish the structural characteristics of the soil,
to determine the variation of the soil (soil profile)
that exists on the site, and
to determine the depth at which free water is
encountered; that is, the location of the
groundwater table
Subsurface Sampling
17
Usually, a truck-mounted drilling rig is employed to drill the test
holes from which samples of soil are obtained using special
sampling tools.
The two most common are the split spoon sampler for soil
characterization tests and the Shelby tube for relatively undisturbed
samples
The Shelby tube is a thin-walled cylinder that is pressed down into
the soil at the bottom of the test hole and then raised with a core of
soil inside
The split spoon sampler is used to test the condition of the soil in
the bottom of the test hole and to extract a soil sample for testing.
By using a standard weight to drive the spoon into the soil and
counting the number of blows required to drive the spoon into the
soil a predetermined distance (usually a total of 18 in. [450 mm] in
three 6 in. [150 mm] increments), an indication of the soil-bearing
capacity can be established
18
Split Spoon Sampler Truck Mounted Drill
Shelby Tubes
Subsurface Sampling
19
Other complimentary methods of sampling
include use of
Sounding Rods,
Augers,
Test pits,
Wash borings,
Rock drillings,
Geophysical instruments,
Crosshole logging

Sounding Rods

20
Used for exploring layers of soil with an erratic
structures
To ensure that subsoil does not contain
exceptionally soft spots between drill holes
and to get information on the relative density of
soils
Hand Auger
21
A hand auger is useful for bringing up samples from
relatively shallow depths in soils that are cohesive enough to
be retained in the tool while it is being raised to the surface. It
consists of a cylinder, usually 2 in. (50 mm) in diameter, with
cutting lips on the lower end.
It is connected by ordinary couplings to a series of pipe
sections. As the auger is turned, layers of earth are peeled off
and forced up into the auger cylinder. When the cylinder is
full, the auger is brought to the surface, emptied, cleaned,
and returned.
For deeper depths, power augers may be used to expedite
the process. Because of the cutting action of auger bits, soil
samples obtained by auguring are known as disturbed
samples and certain soil characteristics are lost.
22

Hand Augers are
manually driven into the
ground to extract
disturbed soil samples
Test Pits
23
To examine the layers of earth exactly as they
exist
soil moisture conditions are evident, and load
tests can be made at any desired depth.
This method is relatively expensive, and the
depth to which examination can be carried out
is limited.
The excavation is normally done with an
excavator or a tractor mounted backhoe.
24
Test pits are relatively expensive but
gives a direct visual representation
of the nearby subsurface soil
parameters
Wash borings
25
The wash boring method requires the use of water; as
a result, the borings are in the form of mud.
Any given sample may be a mixture of two or more
layers of soil. Thus, a particular stratum may not be
detected at all.
The equipment for wash boring consists of an outer
casing, inside of which is a hollow drill rod with a
cross-chopping bit.
Boring is done by raising, lowering, and turning the
rod while water is forced down the rod and out
through ports in the sides of the bit.
Loose material is forced up between the drill rod and
the outer casing by water pressure and washes
across a sieve so that general soil types may be
assessed
Rock Drilling
26
A number of systems are employed for drilling rock; among them are
diamond drilling, shot drilling, and churn drilling.
A diamond drill consists of a diamond-studded bit attached to a core barrel.
The barrel is in turn attached to a drill rod mounted in a rig. The drill rod is
rotated, and water is forced down through the hollow rod to cool the bit and
carry the drill cuttings to the surface. The bit cuts a circular groove, and the
core is forced up into the core barrel. When it is of the desired length, the
core is broken off by a special device and brought to the surface for
inspection. Diamond drilling may be done either vertically or at an angle.
Shot drilling is similar to diamond drilling except for the bit. It consists of a
circular, hollow, hard steel bit with a slot around the bottom edge to allow
circulation of shot. A flow of chilled steel shot is fed through the drill rod to
the bit; as the bit turns, the shot cuts the rock and forms a core, which is
forced up into the core barrel. Cores as large as 72 in. (1800 mm) in
diameter can be taken with a shot bit.
Churn drilling consists of operating a hard steel chopping bit attached to a
drill stem inside a casing. A cable, to which is fastened a set of weights,
raises and drops the bit so that it strikes the bottom, chipping the rock.
Water is forced down the side of the casing, and the resulting slurry is
removed from the hole with a bucket.
Rock Drilling
27
Diamond Bit
Rotary Bit
Cross Chopping Bit
Geophysical Instruments
28
Two basic types of geophysical instruments are used for
shallow 100 ft (30 m or less) subsurface investigation and
exploration:
Refraction seismographs
Earth electrical resistivity units.
Other methods such as radiographic and ultrasonic
techniques may also be used.
The seismic refraction theory is based on the fact that shock
waves travel at particular and well-defined velocities through
materials of various densities. The denser the material is, the
greater the speed. The velocities may range from as low as
600 ft/sec (180 m/sec) in light, dry top soil to 20,000 ft/sec
(6000 m/sec) in unseasoned granite. If the speed of the
shock wave is known, the type, hardness, and depth of the
stratum responsible for the refracted wave may be accurately
determined
Geophysical Instruments
29
The electrical resistivity measurement method of
analysis depends on the ability of earth materials
and formations to conduct electrical current, which
follows relatively good conductors and avoids
poor ones.
Conductivity of the material depends on its
electrolytic properties.
Conductivity and resistivity vary according to
the presence and quantity of fluids,
mineral salt content of the fluids,
volume of pore spaces,
pore size and distribution,
degree of saturation, and a number of other factors
30

Top: Schematic Diagram of Seismic-Wave
Refraction Principle.
Right: Automatic Engineering Seismograph
Cross-Hole Logging
31
Cross-hole logging is a geophysical method that
provides soil logs between boreholes
Seismic wave velocities are used to determine
engineering properties of soils and rock for use in
engineering design applications.
This method can also locate rock fractures,
cavities and soil continuity.
The real advantage of this method is that it
provides an almost continuous soil profile for the
depth of the borehole without losing any
resolution.
It can also be used in a single borehole situation.
Typical Geotechnical Test Bore
Information
32
A typical borehole log provides
A description of the soil types encountered
Methods that were used in obtaining the test
samples,
The depths at which these samples were taken,
The condition of the samples,
The results of any tests performed on the
samples at the time of drilling,
The location where free water was encountered.
33

Groundwater Level
34
Knowing the location of the groundwater level is
important for two main reasons.
From the contractors point of view, a high water
table means that extra costs will be encountered
during the excavation and construction of
foundations.
For the designer, accurate information is of utmost
importance because the location of the water
table affects the soil-bearing capacity, which in
turn determines the size and type of foundation
required for the building.
Surface Testing
35
Surface testing is necessary when (1)
excavations are made in native or fill soils, (2)
deleterious soils are removed and backfilled
with select materials, and (3) fill is placed on a
site
Various tests are available and use specific
test equipment for checking the surface
conditions of backfill material:
the penetrometer for measuring penetration
resistance,
density equipment to check the in-place density,
and
moisture testers for testing the moisture content
of soils
Penetration Tests
36
Penetration tests provide a fast and easy way of
gaining an indication of the bearing capacity of
soils.
Two approaches have been developed: the static
penetration test and the dynamic penetration test.
Both methods measure the resistance of the soil
to a device, commonly known as a penetrometer,
which is pushed or driven into the soil in a
predetermined manner.
In general, the static test is used in the evaluation
of cohesive soils (clays) and the dynamic
approach is used in the evaluation of
cohesionless soils (gravel deposits)
Penetration Tests
37
The instrument developed for the static approach is
the proving ring penetrometer.
This instrument has a cone like probe equipped with a
proving ring and a dial gauge that indicates soil
penetration resistance readings.
To determine the penetration resistance at a given
location in the soil, the penetrometer is pushed firmly
into the soil, at a uniform rate, until the top of the
penetration cone is level with the soil surface. The dial
is then read and the corresponding penetration load is
determined from a calibration chart supplied with the
instrument.
Correlation between penetration load, bearing
capacity, and density of soil is also provided.
Shear Tests
38
The ability of a cohesive soil to support load is related
to its shear strength.
an indication of the strength of these soils can be
determined by a quick test known as the shear test.
handheld vane tester consists of four-bladed vane,
connected by a rod to a torsion head containing a
helical spring
To make a test, the vane is pushed into the soil and
the torsion head is rotated at the rate of 1 rpm.
When the clay shears, the load on the torsion spring is
released and a pointer registers the maximum
deflection of the spring. The shear strength of the soil
is then read from a calibration curve
39

Handheld Vane Shear Test Kit
Compaction Testing
40
Compaction testing provides the site contractor with a specific
compaction value that must be achieved.
Compaction testing is based on the relationship between soil
dry density and the moisture content of the soil.
A practical application of this relationship is spraying water
over fill material to help it settle in.
Soil samples undergo a standard lab test known as a proctor
test
A plot of the dry density of the soil versus the percentage
moisture content is made producing a bell-shaped curve. The
peak of the curve represents the maximum dry density and
the optimum moisture content of the soil.
Compaction values for the site are usually specified as some
percentage of the laboratory results
41

Moisture Tests
42
Several Methods of Moisture tests are
available
One method involves the use of a tester that
operates on the principle of a calcium carbide
reagent being introduced into the free moisture
in the sample.
This forms a gas, the amount of which
depends on the amount of free moisture in
contact with the reagent. The gas is confined
in a sealed chamber, and by measuring the
gas pressure, the amount of free moisture in
the sample is determined.
Secondary Testing
43
The secondary investigation can be as
extensive as the primary and is usually done in
response to adverse findings in the primary
investigation.
Areas of consideration include
Access to the Site
Availability of Services
Site Safety and Local Building Bylaws
Local Labor Supply
Local Weather Conditions
Tutorial Questions
44
What two items might be found on the soil profile that could
affect the type of foundation used in a structure?
What four pieces of information may be found in a field log
report concerning the soil test samples?
Give a brief explanation of each of the following terms: (a)
complementary usage of soil testing methods, (b) bulking of
soil, (c) residual soil
Explain (a) what is meant by the shear strength of clay, (b)
what is meant by degree of compaction, (c) why it is
important to know the degree of compaction in certain
backfilling operations, and (d) why moisture control is
important in compacting soil
State the difference between cohesive and cohesionless
soils.
Give three reasons for obtaining subsurface soil samples on
a building site