The Basis of Life

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The word cell comes from the Latin cella, meaning
"small room".
The descriptive term for the smallest living
biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke
in a book he published in 1665 when he compared
the cork cells he saw through his microscope
The Cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of all known living organisms.
It is the smallest unit of life that is classified
as a living thing
(except virus, which consists only from DNA/RNA covered by protein and lipids)
It is often called the building block of life.
Organisms can be classified as unicellular or
multicellular
Humans contain about 10 trillion (10
13
) cells
The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by
Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
It states that all organisms are composed of one
or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting
cells, that vital functions of an organism occur
within cells, and that all cells contain the
hereditary information necessary for regulating
cell functions and for transmitting information to
the next generation of cells.
types of cells
There are two types of cells:

eukaryotic and prokaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells are usually independent,
while
eukaryotic cells are often found in
multicellular organisms.

a typical prokaryotic cell
The prokaryote cell

The prokaryote cell is simpler, (and therefore smaller, than a
eukaryote cell), lacking a nucleus and most of the
other organelles of eukaryotes.
There are two kinds of prokaryotes:
bacteria and archaea; these share a similar structure.
The nuclear material of a prokaryotic cell consists
of a single chromosome that is in direct contact
with the cytoplasm.
This undefined nuclear region in the cytoplasm is
called the nucleoid.
A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:
flagella and pili project from the cell's surface.
These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that
facilitate movement and communication between cells
the cell envelope generally consisting of a cell wall covering a plasma
membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called
a capsule.
The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell
from its environment, serving as a protective filter.
The cell wall prevents the cell from expanding and finally bursting
(cytolysis) from osmotic pressure
the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and
ribosomes etc.
A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule
Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid.
Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids,
which are usually circular.
Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance
Eukaryotic cells
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa,
and algae are all eukaryotic.
These cells are about 15 times wider than a
typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000
times greater in volume.
The major difference between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain
membrane-bound compartments in which
specific metabolic activities take place.
Most important among these is a cell nucleus
that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA
This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, means "true nucleus."
Other differences include:
The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function,
with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be
present.
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules,
called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins.
All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from
the cytoplasm by a membrane.
Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some
DNA.
Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia
play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and
thermosensation.
Cilia may thus be "viewed as sensory cellular antennae that
coordinate a large number of cellular signaling pathways
Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. The flagella are
more complex than those of prokaryotes.

cell components

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have
a membrane that envelops the cell, separates its
interior from its environment, regulates what
moves in and out (selectively permeable), and
maintains the electric potential of the cell
Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up
most of the cell volume.
All cells (except Red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus) possess
DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA,
containing the information necessary to build
various proteins such as enzymes.
Membrane

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell
membrane or plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes
is usually covered by a cell wall.
This membrane serves to separate and protect a
cell from its surrounding environment and is
made mostly from a double layer of lipids
It may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane.
Embedded within this membrane is a variety of
protein molecules that act as channels and
pumps that move different molecules into and
out of the cell.
The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable'
Genetic material

Two different kinds of genetic material exist:
(DNA) and (RNA)
Most organisms use DNA for their long-term
information storage
but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their
genetic material.
The biological information contained in an
organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence
RNA is also used for information transport (e.g.,
mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal
RNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add
amino acids during protein translation
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a
simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome)
in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into
different, linear molecules called
chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus,
usually with additional genetic material in
some organelles like mitochondria and
chloroplasts
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell
nucleus (the nuclear genome)
and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome).
In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs of
linear DNA molecules called chromosomes.
The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule
distinct from the nuclear DNA.
it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy
production and specific tRNAs
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be
artificially introduced into the cell by a process called
transfection.
This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the
cell's genome, or stable, if it is.
Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the
genome
Organelles

There are several types of organelles in a cell.
Some (such as the nucleus and golgi
apparatus) are typically solitary, while others
can be numerous.
The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the
cell and surrounds the organelles
1-Cell nucleus - A cell's information center, the cell nucleus
is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic
cell.
It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where
almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription)
occur.
The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm
by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope
The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA
from various molecules that could accidentally damage its
structure or interfere with its processing.
During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a
special RNA, called messenger RNA(mRNA).
This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it
is translated into a specific protein molecule
Nucleus of a cell
The nucleolus is a specialized region within
the nucleus where ribosome subunits are
assembled.
In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in
the cytoplasm

the power generators:
2-Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that
occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria
play a critical role in generating energy in the
eukaryotic cell
Mitochondria generate the cell's energy by
oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to
release energy stored in cellular nutrients
(typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP.
Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two.
Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria

Chloroplasts
3-Endoplasmic Reticulum:
is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications
and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the
cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on
its surface and secretes proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER,
which lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium appropriation and
release.

4-Golgi apparatus:
The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the
macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the
cell.

5-Ribosomes:
The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each
consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the
nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids.
Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane
Endomembranes
6-Lysosomes and Peroxisomes eukaryotes
only:
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes. They
digest excess or worn-out organelles, food
particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of
toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these
destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system.
7-Centrosome the cytoskeleton organiser: The
centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell a key
component of the cytoskeleton.
It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi
apparatus.
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which
separate during cell division and help in the formation of
the mitotic spindle.

8-Vacuoles: Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles
store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled
space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells,
most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can
pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The
vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of
plants than animals

9-Cell wall
Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
have a cell wall.
The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically
and chemically from its environment
It is an additional layer of protection to the cell
membrane.
Different types of cell have cell walls made up of
different materials;
plant cell walls are primarily made up of pectin,
fungi cell walls are made up of chitin
and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.
10-Capsule
A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria
outside the cell membrane and cell wall.
11-Flagella
Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The
bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through
the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell
wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages,
protein in nature. Are most commonly found in
bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.
12-Fimbriae (pili)
They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of
protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae are
responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific
receptors of human cell (adherence).

Functions

Growth and metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the
functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process
nutrient molecules.
Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell
breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing
power,
anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to
construct complex molecules and perform other biological
functions.
Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down
into a less chemically complex sugar molecule called glucose.
Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, through two different
pathways
The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no
oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic
metabolism. Each reaction is designed to
produce some hydrogen ions that can then be
used to make energy packets (ATP).
In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method
used for converting energy.
The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or
citric acid cycle, occurs inside the
mitochondria and can generate enough ATP to
run all the cell functions
Chromosomes:
study of chromosomes is called Cytology
chromosome
The word chromosome comes from the Greek (chroma,
colour) and (soma, body)
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and
protein found in cells.
It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many
genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide
sequences.
Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which
serve to package the DNA and control its functions.

The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be
composed of 100,000 to over 3,750,000,000
nucleotides in a long chain
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are
packaged by proteins into a condensed structure
called chromatin.
Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular
division and must be replicated, divided, and
passed successfully to their daughter cells
to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of
their progeny.
Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or
unduplicated.
Unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands,
Duplicated chromosomes contain two identical copies
(called chromatids) joined by a centromere
Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri
independently developed the chromosome
theory of inheritance in 1902.

Each chromosome has one centromere, with
one or two arms projecting from it

Chromatin is the complex of DNA and protein
found in the eukaryotic nucleus, which
packages chromosomes.

Human chromosomes

Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types:
autosomes and
sex chromosomes.

Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are
passed on through the sex chromosomes.

The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary
information.

Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of
autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a
total of 46 per cell
Human chromosomes
Asexually reproducing species have one set of
chromosomes, which are the same in all body cells.
However, asexual species can be either haploid or
diploid.

Sexually reproducing species have somatic cells (body
cells), which are diploid [2n] having two sets of
chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the
father.

Gametes (reproductive cells), are haploid [n]: They
have one set of chromosomes.

Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germ
cell

During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of
father and mother can exchange small parts of
themselves (crossover), and thus create new
chromosomes that are not inherited solely
from either parent.

When a male and a female gamete merge
(fertilization), a new diploid organism is
formed.

Karyogram of a human male

Like many sexually reproducing species,
humans have special gonosomes (sex
chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes).
These are XX in females and XY in males
Genes & Nucleic Acids
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living
organism.
It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA
Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all
proteins and functional RNA chains
Genes hold the information to build and maintain an
organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.
All organisms have many genes corresponding to
various biological traits, some of which are
immediately visible;
such as eye color or number of limbs,
and some of which are not;
such as blood type, increased risk for specific diseases, or
the thousands of basic biochemical processes that
comprise life
Genes: classification
Structural genes- control structure of polypeptides
Super genes
Operator genes
Regulator genes
Temporal genes
Architectural genes
Pleiotropic genes- influence phenotypic traits
Sex-linked genes

The chemical structure of a four-base fragment of a DNA double helix
an allele
a gene is the basic instructiona sequence of
nucleic acids (DNA or, in the case of certain viruses RNA),

while an allele is one variant of that gene.
The vast majority of living organisms encode
their genes in long strands of DNA

DNA consists of a chain made from four types
of nucleotide subunits, each composed of:
a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose),
a phosphate group, and
one of the four bases; adenine, cytosine, guanine,
and thymine.
The most common form of DNA in a cell is in a double
helix structure
in which two individual DNA strands twist around each
other in a right-handed spiral.
In this structure, the base pairing rules specify that
guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with
thymine.
The base pairing between guanine and cytosine forms
three hydrogen bonds
whereas the base pairing between adenine and
thymine forms two hydrogen bonds.
The two strands in a double helix must therefore be
complementary, that is, their bases must align such
that the adenines of one strand are paired with the
thymines of the other strand, and so on
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by
transcribing the gene into RNA
a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to
DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose
rather than deoxyribose.
RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine.
RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are
typically single-stranded.
Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series
of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which
serve as the words in the genetic language.
The genetic code specifies the correspondence during
protein translation between codons and amino acids.
The genetic code is nearly the same for all known
organisms
The total complement of genes in an organism or
cell is known as its genome, which may be stored
on one or more chromosomes
the region of the chromosome at which a
particular gene is located is called its locus
A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA
helix on which thousands of genes are encoded
the majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on
multiple linear chromosomes, which are packed
within the nucleus in complex with storage
proteins called histones
Genetic code
The genetic code is the set of chemical
symbols by which a gene is translated into a
functional protein.
Each gene consists of a specific sequence of
nucleotides encoded in a DNA strand;
a correspondence between nucleotides, the basic
building blocks of genetic material, and
amino acids, the basic building blocks of proteins,
must be established for genes to be
successfully translated into functional proteins
Transcription
It is the process of genetic transcription produces a
single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger
RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to
the DNA from which it was transcribed.
The DNA strand whose sequence matches that of the
RNA is known as the coding strand; and
the strand from which the RNA was synthesized is the
template strand.
Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA
polymerase
In eukaryotes, transcription necessarily occurs in the
nucleus, where the cell's DNA is sequestered;
the RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is
known as the primary transcript
Translation
Translation is the process by which a mature
mRNA molecule is used as a template for
synthesizing a new protein.
Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large
complexes of RNA and protein responsible for
carrying out the chemical reactions to add
new amino acids to a growing polypeptide
chain by the formation of peptide bonds
Protein synthesis

DNA replication and inheritance

The growth, development, and reproduction of
organisms relies on cell division,
or the process by which a single cell divides into two
usually identical daughter cells.
This requires first making a duplicate copy of every
gene in the genome in a process called DNA
replication.
The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as
DNA polymerases
the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing,
the sequence of one strand completely specifies the
sequence of its complement
In prokaryotes - bacteria and archaea - this
usually occurs via a relatively simple process
called binary fission

Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex
process known as the cell cycle

The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one
generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance

Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the
cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents'
cells.
In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic
copy or clone of the parent organism.
In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division
called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are
haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene.
The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those
produced by males are called sperm.
Two gametes fuse to form a fertilized egg, a single cell that once
again has a diploid number of geneseach with one copy from the
mother and one copy from the father.
The notion of a gene is evolving with the
science of genetics, which began when Gregor
Mendel noticed that biological variations are
inherited from parent organisms as specific,
discrete traits

Mutation

DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate
Rare, spontaneous alterations in the base sequence of a particular
gene arise from a number of sources, such as
errors in DNA replication and
the aftermath of DNA damage
These errors are called mutations.
The cell contains many DNA repair mechanisms for preventing
mutations and maintaining the integrity of the genome
Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, some mutations in
protein-coding genes are silent, or produce no change in the amino
acid sequence of the protein for which they code
Mutations that do have phenotypic effects are most often neutral
or deleterious to the organism, but sometimes they confer benefits
to the organism's fitness.
Mutations propagated to the next generation lead to
variations within a species' population.
Variants of a single gene are known as alleles, and
differences in alleles may give rise to differences in
traits.
Although it is rare for the variants in a single gene to
have clearly distinguishable phenotypic effects,
certain well-defined traits are in fact controlled by
single genetic loci.
A gene's most common allele is called the wild type
allele, and
rare alleles are called mutants
However, this does not imply that the wild-type allele
is the ancestor from which the mutants are descended.

The total complement of genes in an organism or
cell is known as its genome.
In prokaryotes, the vast majority of genes are
located on a single chromosome of circular DNA,
while eukaryotes usually possess multiple
individual linear DNA helices packed into dense
DNA-protein complexes called chromosomes.
Genes that appear together on one chromosome
of one species may appear on separate
chromosomes in another species.
Many species carry more than one copy of their
genome within each of their somatic cells.
Cells or organisms with only one copy of each
chromosome are called
haploid;
those with two copies are called diploid;
and those with more than two copies are called
polyploid.
The copies of genes on the chromosomes are not
necessarily identical.
In sexually reproducing organisms, one copy is
normally inherited from each parent.

Nucleic acids are large biological molecules
essential for all known forms of life.
They include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleic acids were discovered by Friedrich
Miescher in 1869
Nucleic acids are linear polymers (chains) of
nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of three components:
a purine or pyrimidine nucleobase (sometimes termed
nitrogenous base or simply base),
a pentose sugar, and
a phosphate group
Nucleic acid types differ in the structure of the
sugar in their nucleotides - DNA contains 2'-
deoxyribose
while RNA contains ribose
Also, the nucleobases found in the two nucleic
acid types are different: adenine, cytosine,
and guanine are found in both RNA and DNA,
while thymine occurs in DNA and uracil occurs
in RNA
Double-stranded nucleic acids are made up of
complementary sequences, in which extensive
Watson-Crick base pairing results in the a
highly repeated and quite uniform double-
helical three-dimensional structure

Nucleic acid molecules are usually
unbranched, and may occur as linear and
circular molecules

One DNA or RNA molecule differs from another
primarily in the sequence of nucleotides.
Nucleotide sequences are of great importance in
biology
since they carry the ultimate instructions that
encode all
biological molecules,
molecular assemblies,
subcellular and cellular structures,
organs and organisms, and
directly enable cognition, memory and behavior

Deoxyribonucleic acid;
DNA is a nucleic acid containing the genetic
instructions used in the development and
functioning of all known living organisms
(with the exception of RNA viruses).
The DNA segments carrying this genetic
information are called genes
DNA consists of two long polymers of simple
units called nucleotides, with backbones made
of sugars and phosphate groups joined by
ester bonds
Attached to each sugar is one of four types of
molecules called nucleobases (or bases).
It is the sequence of these four nucleobases
along the backbone that encodes information.
This information is read using the genetic code,
which specifies the sequence of the amino acids
within proteins
The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into
the related nucleic acid RNA in a process called
transcription
Within cells DNA is organized into long structures
called chromosomes.
During cell division these chromosomes are
duplicated in the process of DNA replication,
providing each cell its own complete set of
chromosomes

Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins
such as histones compact and organize DNA.
These compact structures guide the
interactions between DNA and other proteins,
helping control which parts of the DNA are
transcribed

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in converting genetic
information from genes into the amino acid sequences of
proteins.
The three universal types of RNA include transfer RNA
(tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
Messenger RNA acts to carry genetic sequence information
between DNA and ribosomes, directing protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA is a major component of the ribosome, and
catalyzes peptide bond formation.
Transfer RNA serves as the carrier molecule for amino acids
to be used in protein synthesis, and is responsible for
decoding the mRNA
Lets do some effort
Differentiate between (02 each)
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Animal and plant cells
DNA and RNA
Gene and allele
Anabolism and catabolism
What is;
Heredity
Genes, genome and gene code
Somatic cells and sex cells