Introduction to Feedback

Control Systems
Cabacang, M
Cardoso, RE
Llovia, C
Mate, FJ
Introduction
System An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.
Control System An interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired response.
Process The device, plant, or system
under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-
effect relationship of the process.
Introduction
Multivariable Control System
Open-Loop Control Systems
utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desired
response.
Closed-Loop Control Systems
utilizes feedback to compare
the actual output to the
desired output response.
Feedback Control System
A system whose output is controlled using its measurement as a feedback
signal
This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to generate an error
signal which is filtered by a controller to produce the systems control input
Continuous-time linear time-invariant (LTI) feedback systems
Terminology
Plant is the system to be controlled
Sensor measures the quantity to be controlled
Actuator affects the plant
Controller or control processor processes the sensor signal to drive the
actuator
control law or control algorithm is the algorithm used by the control
processor to derive the actuator signal
The controlled system is called the plant, and its LTI model is the transfer function
P(s).
The disturbed output of the plant is y(t) and its noisy measurement is y
m
(t),
corrupted by the measurement noise n(t).
The error between the desired output y
d
(t) and y
m
(t) is the measured error,
denoted as e
m
(t)
The actual error between thee plant output and the reference is e(t):=y
d
(t)-y(t).
The output disturbance is the signal d
o
(t) and the output measurement
noise is n(t).
The feedback measurement sensor dynamics are modelled by G
m
(S).
The actuator (e.g. valve) modelled by G
a
(s) is the device that translates a
control signal from the controller K(s) in an action on the plant input
The input disturbance d
i
(t) (e.g. friction force) disturbs the control signal
from the actuator to the plant input
In many cases, we will assume that the actuator and sensor are perfect (
G
a
(s)=G
m
(s)=1 ), and that measurement noise can be neglected so that
n(t)=0. This will simplify the analysis
Objectives of feedback control
The main objectives of the feedback control is to ensure that variables of
interest in a process or a system, thought of as the output signal, either
Track reference trajectories (called tracking or servo), or
Are maintained close to their set points (called regulation)
Need for feedback
To counteract disturbance signals affecting the output
To improve system performance in the presence of model uncertainty
to stabilize the unstable plant
Feedback properties
Robustness to uncertainties
Design of dynamics
Higher levels of automation
Drawbacks of feedbacks
Possibility for instability if the system is not designed properly
Feedback inherently couples different art of a system
Complexity of embedding a control system into a product
Simple form of feedback
e = r y, difference between the reference signal and the output of the
system
The feedback in the equation is called on-off control
Control variable is not defined when the error is zero
Modification: introducing hysteresis or dead zone

Controllers and Final

Control Element
The concept of a control system is to sense deviation of the output from the
desired and correct it, till the desired output is achieved.
The deviation of the actual output from the desired value is called an error.
The feedback allows us to compare the actual output with its desired value
to generate the error.
The error is denoted as e(t).
The desiredvalue of the output is also called the reference input or a set
point.
Controller
The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and
decides the proper corrective action.
The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final control
element. This brings the output back to its desired set point value.
The controller is the heart of a control system.
The controller has its own logic to handle the error.
Properties of controller
The actual output is sensed by a sensor and converted to a proper feedback
signal b(t) using a feedback element.
The set point value is the reference input r(t).

ERROR
The error detector compares the feedback signal b(t) with the reference
input r(t) to generate the error.
e(t) = r(t) - b(t)
This gives an absolute indication of an error.
Error can also be expressed as the percentage of the measured variable
range. The range of the measured variable b(t) is also called span.
span= b
max
b
min




Where e(p) = error as percent of span
VARIABLE RANGE
In practical systems, the controlled variable has a range of values within
which the control is required to be maintained. This range is specified as the
maximum and minimum values allowed for the controlled variable. It can be
specified as some nominal values and plus-minus tolerance allowed about
this value. Such range is important for the design of controllers.
CONTROLLER OUTPUT RANGE
Similar to the controlled variable, a range is associated with a controller
output variable. It is also specified in terms of the maximum and minimum
values.
But often the controller output is expressed as a percentage where
minimum controller output is 0% and maximum controller output is 100%.
But 0% controller output does not mean zero output.
CONTROL LAG
The control lag is the time required by the process and the controller loop
to make the necessary changes to obtain the output at its setpoint.
DEAD ZONE
Many times a dead zone is associated with a process control loop. The time
corresponding to the dead zone is called the dead time. The time elapsed
between the instant when the error occurs and the instant when the first
corrective action occurs is called the dead time. This part is called is also
called dead band.
Classification of Controllers
The classification of controller is based on the response of the controller and
mode of operation of the controller.
Basically, controllers are classified as discontinuous controllers and
continuous controllers.
The discontinuous mode controllers are further classified as ON-OFF
controllers and multiposition controllers.
The continuous mode controllers are further classified as proportional
controllers, integral controllers, and derivative controllers. Some continuous
mode controllers can be combined to obtain composite controller mode.
Examples of such composite controllers are PI, PD, and PID controllers.

Discontinuous Controller Modes
Two controller modes based on the discontinuous changes in the controller
output as the error varies:
Two-Position Mode
Multiposition Mode
TWO-POSITION MODE (ON-OFF CONTROLLER)
Most common and simplest mode of controller
It has to control two positions of control element, either on or off.
This controller mode has two possible output states namely 0% or 100%.
Mathematically this can be expressed as
p= o% e
p
< 0
p=100% e
p
> 0
Where p is the controller output and e
p
is the error based on the percent of
span

Continuous Controller Modes
The controller output varies smoothly proportional to the error or
proportional to some form of the error.
Depending upon which form of the error is used as the input to the
controller to produce the continuous controller output, these controllers are
classified as
1. Proportional control mode
2. Integral control mode
3. Derivative control mode
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL MODE
In this control mode, the output of controller is simple proportional to the
error e(t). The relation between the error e(t) and the controller output p is
determined by constant called proportional gain constant denoted as K
p
.
The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t). Thus each
value of the error has a unique value of the controller output. The range of
the error which covers 0% to 100% controller output is called the
proportional band.

For the zero error, there exists some controller output p
o
Hence the
mathematical expression for the proportional control mode is
p(t)= K
p
e(t) + p
o
Where K
p
is the proportional gain constant
p
o
is the controller output with zero error
The direct and reverse action is possible in the proportional control mode.
The error may be positive or negative because error is r-b and b can be less
or greater than reference setpoint r.
If the controlled variable i.e input to the controller increases, causing increase
in the controller output, the action is called direct action.
If the controlled variable decreases, causing increase in the controller output
or increase in the controlled variable , causing decrease in the controller
output , the action is called reverse action.
The proportional band can be mathematically defined by,
PB= 100/K
p


INTEGRAL CONTROL MODE
In proportional control mode, error reduces but cannot go to zero. It finally
produces an offset error. When the load changes, the output deviates from
the set point. Such deviation is called offset error. The integrating controller
is relatively slow controller. It changes its output at a rate which is
dependent on the integrating time constant , until the error signal is
cancelled. Compared to the proportional control, the integral control
requires time to build up an appreciable output. However it continues to act
till the error signal disappears. This corrects the problem of the offset error
in the proportional controller.
DERIVATIVE CONTROL MODE
In practice, the error is a function of time and at a particular instant it can be
zero. But it may not remain zero forever after that instant. Hence, some
action is required corresponding to the rate at which the error is changing.
Such a controller is called derivative controller. In this mode, the output of
the controller depends on the time rate of change of the actual errors.
Hence it is also called rate action mode or anticipatory action mode
The mathematical equation for the mode is,
p(t)= K
d
d e(t)/ dt
Where K
d
= derivative gain constant
The important feature of this type of control mode is that for a given rate of
change of error signal, there is a unique value of the controller output.
The advantage of the derivative control action is that it responds to the rate of
change of error and can produce the significant correction before the
magnitude of the actuating error becomes too large. Derivative control
thus anticipates the actuating error, initiates an early corrective action and
tends to increase stability of the system improving the transient response.
HARDWARES FOR
PROCESS CONTROL
What are these hardwares?
the physical, touchable, material parts of a
computer or other system.
the mechanical equipment necessary for
conducting an activity, usually distinguished
from the theory and design that make the
activity possible.
What are these hardwares involved for process
control;
Valves
Pressure gauges
Pumps
Part of the Computers
Temperature gauges