Syafiqah Lyana binti Shamsuri

4 Jujur (2009)
5 Bersih (2010)
• All living & non-living things are made
up of elements.
• At least 25 elements have been found
to be essential to living organisms.
• C, O, H & N make up about 96% of the
chemical composition of living matter.
• Major elements : C, H, N, O, Ca, P, S, K,
Na, Cl & Mg.
• Trace elements : boron (B), chromium
(Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), fluorine
(F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se),
silicon (Si), tin (Sn), vanadium (V), &
zinc (Zn).
 a substance, composed of only one
kind of atom which cannot be
broken down into simpler
substances by a chemical reaction.

Types of Element Chemical compound Can be divided

in the cell into two
•Major elements
• Carbohydrates • Organic
•Trace elements
•Ultratrace • Lipids Compound
elements • Proteins • Inorganic
• Nucleic acids Compounds
• Water.
 Provide energy during To build cell wall in
respiration plant cell

As food storage To form external skeleton

(starch in plant cells, of insects
glycogen in animal cells)

To be converted to other
To form glycoprotein organic compounds
•Mucus lining of e.g.: amino acids & fats.
human respiratory
•system to trap dust
& microbial spores
•In plasma To produce sugary nectar in
some flower to attract feeding
membrane for cell insects (pollination)
recognition
 To form lipid bilayer of To protect organ &
plasma membrane as heat insulator

As a stored product in
the form of adipose tissues
and fats or oil in seeds
As a source of energy

Solvent for vitamins A,D,E,K

To synthesis steroid hormones
including sex hormones

To produce liver bile for the

digestion of fats
 To form the structure To form connective tissues
of cell such as such as tendons, ligaments
protoplasm and muscles coverings

To produce new cells

To build up muscles for
movement

To form haemoglobin in red blood To form the protein molecules

cell to transport oxygen in the plasma membrane

To synthesise enzymes, and

hormones to controls chemicals
processes
 Two types :
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Its basic unit structure is

Contain carbon, hydrogen, nucleotide which consist of
oxygen, nitrogen and a sugar, a phosphate &
phosphorus a nitrogen base.

The importance of nucleic

acid in cell:
Carry genetic information
Direct protein synthesis
Determine the traits which
are inherited from the parents
Control all the core activities
that characterise such as
chemical reaction & growth
As a major component of Component of lubricants &
secretion (synovial fluid,
protoplasm digestive juices, mucus
& sweat)
As a transport medium within
cells & between cells
To provide support especially
in non-woody plants when
cells are turgid & hydrostatic
Allows chemical changes to skeleton in some animals
take place in solution

As a medium for biochemical As a universal solvent to

reactions in the cell dissolve respiratory gases
& allow diffusion during
gaseous exchange at
alveolus & cells
Contain the
element 3 main groups :
carbon, MONOSACCHARIDES
hydrogen & ,
oxygen DISACCHARIDES,
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Simple sugar as glucose,
fructose & galactose
Basic building blocks of
carbohydrates

Reducing sugars

Consist of single chemical

group made up of a ring
of carbon, hydrogen
& oxygen atoms Can be detected by using
Benedict’s test
 All are reducing sugar except sucrose

Can be broken down into

monosaccharides through hydrolysis
hydrolysi

Consist of two monosaccharides

combined chemically through condensation.
Mono + mono  disaccharides + water Complex sugars
E.g..: maltose (malt sugar),
sucrose (cane sugar), lactose (milk sugar)

Glucose + glucose  maltose + water

Glucose + fructose  sucrose + water
Glucose + galactose  lactose + water
 Large complex sugar

Many monosaccharides are

joined together to form long
chain of simple sugar called polymers.
e.g. : STARCH, GLYCOGEN &
CELLULOSE
Formed by animals as a
means of storing glucose

Produced by plants as a
form of food in storage Structural polysaccharides
in plant cell
 Element in proteins Monomer:
Amino acidsMolecules of amino acids are joined
Carbon together through condensation
Hydrogen
Oxygen Large and complex Amino acids are joined together
Nitrogen molecules by peptide bond
Phosphorus
Amino acid + amino acid  dipeptide + water

Polypeptides are formed when many molecules of amino acids are joine
together to form long chains of amino acid.

20 amino acids found in Two types of amino acid:

the proteins of living cells
Essential Non-essential
amino acids : amino acids : can
cannot synthesisedbe synthesised by
by body cells body cells
 Primary
structure:
a long
straight
chain of
polypeptide

Secondary
structure:
coiled to
form helix
or pleated
sheet.

Quaternary
Tertiary structure :
structure : folded
helix or protein
pleated chains are
sheet is joined
folded in together to
various ways form a
to form single
globular
 Organic compound that contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Types of lipids

Fats and Oils Phospholipids Steroid Wax

• triglycerides important • Complex • In cuticles
• consists one component in organic of the
molecule the formation compound epidermis of
• 1 molecule of plasma • e.g.: leaves,
of glycerol membrane cholesterol, fruits and
and 3 hormones seeds
molecule of • Preventing
fatty acid the entry
• Divided into and
saturated evaporating
fats and of water
unsaturated
fats
 SATURATED FAT UNSATURATED FAT
SIMILARITIES
BOTH are triglyceride & contain fatty acids.
DIFFERENCES
Contain saturated fatty acid Contain unsaturated fatty acid
Its Carbon chain contains maximum Its carbon chain is not saturated
number of hydrogen with hydrogen.
Single bond between carbon atoms At least 1 Double bond between
(-c-c-) carbon atoms (-c=c-)
Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
High melting point Low melting point
Increase the level of cholesterol in Decrease the level of cholesterol in
the blood the blood
Increase the risk of heart diseases Does not increase the risk of heart
diseases
Example : animal fats (lard, butter) Example : vegetable oils (palm oil,
corn oil)
 Metabolism : Substrate : the substance
biochemical processes that is acted upon by an
in the cells enzyme.
Involves a series of Required for :
Organisms
chemical reactions Digestion,
depends on
(complex compound can synthesis of
enzymes for the
be synthesised from substances,
biochemical
simple substances or contraction of
processes in the
broken down). Its control muscles,
cells
by enzymes. respiration,
etc.
ENZYMEs : Enable biochemical reactions to
A proteins organic catalyst take place quickly in the cells
which function that increase the where the internal environment
as biocatalyst. rate of a such as temperature may not
biochemical
reaction favourable for chemical
reactions
 Chemical reaction
All enzyme are catalysed are
protein reversible reactions

Required very small

Speed up biochemical quantities to
reactions but are not produce a large
changed or destroyed at the amount of chemical
end of reaction change

Produced by living
The action of enzyme is specific
cell
Sensitive to pH
Sensitive to temperature •Most active at pH7
•40-60oC – denatured •Some enzymes
•Low temp. – less active require specific
•Optimum temp. – 35- acidic
40oC (pepsin)/alkaline
condition (trypsin)
• By adding ‘-ase’ to the main part of the name of
substrate on which they act.
• Examples :
• Maltose – maltase
• Sucrose – sucrase
• Lactose – lactase
• Protein – protease
• Lipids – lipase
• Amylum (starch) - amylase
• Some enzymes which cannot be named this way
because names of these enzymes have been
used for a long time.
– Examples : rennin, pepsin, erepsin, trypsin
 Examples : enzymes that are
produced by the cell & involved in respiration
function within the cell. (mitochondria) & in
photosynthesis (chloroplast)

secreted out of the Examples : salivary amylase,

cell & functions trypsin, & lipase are
outside the cell. produced in the pancreas &
transported to the
duodenum.
 pH Level Temperature
• Protein are • Low temperature, the rate of enzyme
denatured by reaction is low.
changes in the • Temperature >, rate of reaction >. 
pH level of the increasing the force & the rate of
reaction medium. collision.
• Most enzymes • Low temp (below 40oC), a rise of 10oC
are effective in will double the rate of reaction.
only a narrow pH • Optimum temp = 37oC @ body
range. temperature.
• The optimum • Over 40oC, enzymes becomes
pH : the denatured rapidly
particular pH at • At 60oC, enzymes are denatured & the
which the rate of reaction stop.
reaction is
fastest.
 Concentration of Substrate
• pH value, temperature &
enzyme concentration are
kept constant, the rate of
enzyme reaction increases
directly proportional to the
amount of substrate present
until a limiting value.
• The rate of enzyme reaction
does not increase even
though the [substrate]
increase.
Concentration of Enzyme
• pH value, temperature,
substrate concentration are
kept constant.
• Reaction increases directly
proportional to the [enzyme]
until it reaches a limiting
value.
• Any increase in the enzyme
concentration does not
increase the rate of
reaction.
APPLICATION ENZYMES USES

Daily Product Rennin To coagulate milk proteins in

cheese production
Lactose To produce lactose-free milk.

Meat Industry Trypsin To digest & tenderise meat,

which makes it easier to cook
the meat & shortens cooking
time
Baking α -amylase To breakdown starch flour
industry into sugars in the making of
breads & buns.
Production of α -amylase To produce fructose syrup
fruit juices Amyloglucosidase from corn starch. Used as
food drink sweeteners.
Glucose
isomerase

Pectinase To digest the pectin in plant

Brewing α -amylase To digest starch into sugars
industry
Zymase To convert sugars into alcohol

Extraction of Cellulase To breakdown plant cell walls

agar from from seaweeds. Makes it
marine easier to extract agar from
seaweed seaweeds.
Biological Amylase To be used in dish washers &
detergent Protease in washing powders.
Lipase
Leather Protease To remove hair & to soften
industry leather to make bags, belts &
shoes.
Paper industry Amylase To digest starch into smaller
molecules to fill spaces
between cellulose fibres to
produce smoother paper.
Medicine Microbial trypsin To dissolve blood clots

Genetic Ligase To produce GMO to increase

No glucose No cellulose
No food storage
 
Respiration

No starch or Plant cell cannot
cannot occur maintain fixed
glycogen
shape
 LACK OF
ENZYMES No new cells are
ANTIBODIES formed
HORMONES
HAEMOGLOBIN
No carrier proteins
and pores to
transport Muscle cell
substances across cannot contract
Plasma the plasma
membrane not membrane
properly formed
 PLASMA
NO ABSORPTION
MEMBRANE IS NOT
OF VITAMIN
WELL FORMED
ADEK
 No cholesterol to
stabilise the plasma
membrane
All living processes
stop functioning

No chemical
reactions in the
cells
NO DNA AND
RNA IN THE
CELLS SYTHESIS OF NO DIVISION
PROTEINS STOPS OF CELLS
OCCUR