Is composed of at least two elements working together

to produce material properties that are different to the

properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most
composites consist of a bulk material (the matrix), and a
reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the
strength and stiffness of the matrix. This reinforcement is
usually in fibre form.
A common example of a composite is concrete. It
consists of a binder (cement) and a reinforcement (gravel).

The matrix is the component that holds the

filler together.

The reinforcement is the material that has been

impregnated in the matrix to lend its advantage (usually
strength) to the composite. The fillers can be of any
material such as carbon fiber, glass bead, sand, or
ceramic.

For the matrix, many modern composites use

thermosetting or thermosoftening plastics (also
called resins). (The use of plastics in the matrix
explains the name 'reinforced plastics' commonly
given to composites). The plastics are polymers that
hold the reinforcement together and help to
determine the physical properties of the end
product.

Are liquid when prepared but harden and

become rigid (ie, they cure) when they are
heated. The setting process is irreversible, so
that these materials do not become soft
under high temperatures. These plastics also
resist wear and attack by chemicals making
them very durable, even when exposed to
extreme environments.

Are hard at low temperatures but soften

when they are heated. Although they are less
commonly used than thermosetting plastics
they do have some advantages, such as greater
fracture toughness, long shelf life of the raw
material, capacity for recycling and a cleaner,
safer workplace because organic solvents are
not needed for the hardening process.

Although glass fibres are by far the most common

reinforcement, many advanced composites now use
fine fibres of pure carbon. Carbon fibres are much
stronger than glass fibres, but are also more expensive
to produce. Carbon fibre composites are light as well as
strong. They are used in aircraft structures and in
sporting goods (such as golf clubs), and increasingly are
used instead of metals to repair or replace damaged
bones. Even stronger (and more costly) than carbon
fibres are threads of boron.

Polymers are not only used for the matrix, they

also make a good reinforcement material in
composites. For example, Kevlar is a polymer fibre
that is immensely strong and adds toughness to a
composite. It is used as the reinforcement in
composite products that require lightweight and
reliable construction (eg, structural body parts of an
aircraft). Composite materials were not the original
use for Kevlar it was developed to replace steel in
radial tyres and is now used in bulletproof vests and
helmets.

1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

-also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced
Polymers (or Plastics).
these materials use a polymer-based resin
as the matrix, and a variety of fibres such as
glass, carbon and aramid as the
reinforcement.

2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

- Increasingly found in the automotive

industry, these materials use a metal such as
aluminium as the matrix, and reinforce it
with fibres such as silicon carbide.

3. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

- Used in very high temperature

environments, these materials use a ceramic
as the matrix and reinforce it with short
fibres, or whiskers such as those made from
silicon carbide and boron nitride.

 Strength and stiffness with lightness.

Very durable.
Provide design flexibility.

 High manufacturing costs.

Composites have properties, which could

not be achieved by either of the constituent
materials alone. Composites are put into
service in flight vehicles, automobiles, boats,
pipelines, buildings, roads, bridges, and
dozens of other products.

There are four main direct loads that any

material in a structure has to withstand:
tension, compression, shear and flexure.

The figure shows a tensile load applied

to a composite. The response of a composite
to tensile loads is very dependent on the
tensile stiffness and strength properties of
the reinforcement fibres, since these are far
higher than the resin system on its own.

The figure shows a composite under a

compressive load. Here, the adhesive and
stiffness properties of the resin system are
crucial, as it is the role of the resin to
maintain the fibres as straight columns and
to prevent them from buckling.

The figure shows a composite experiencing a

shear load. This load is trying to slide adjacent layers
of fibres over each other. Under shear loads the resin
plays the major role, transferring the stresses across
the composite. For the composite to perform well
under shear loads the resin element must not only
exhibit good mechanical properties but must also
have high adhesion to the reinforcement fibre. The
interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of a composite is
often used to indicate this property in a multiplayer
composite (laminate).

Flexural loads are really a combination of

tensile, compression and shear loads. When
loaded as shown , the upper face is put into
compression, the lower face into tension and
the central portion of the laminate
experiences shear.

Composite Manufacturing
Processes
Particulate Methods: Sintering
Fiber reinforced: Several
Structural: Usually Hand lay-up and
atmospheric curing or vacuum curing

Summary
Composites are classified according to:

-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)

-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
Composites enhance matrix properties:

-- MMC: enhance sy, TS, creep performance

-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, sy, TS, creep performance
Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.

1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous

Composites)
Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced
composites:

 Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced

composites:

2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate

Composites):

3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake

Composites):

4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Fillers

Composites):

1. Open Molding
A process using a rigid, one sided mold
which shapes only one surface of the panel.
2. Vacuum Bag Molding
A process using a two-sided mold set that
shapes both surfaces of the panel.
3. Autoclave Molding
A process using a two-sided mold set that
forms both surfaces of the panel.

4. Resin Transfer Molding

A process using a two-sided mold set
that forms both surfaces of the panel.
1. What is the matrix in a composite and what materials are
commonly used as a matrix?
2. What are the possible strengthening mechanisms for particle
reinforced composites (there are 2)?
3. Be able to calculate upper and lower bounds for the Youngs
modulus of a large particle composite.
4. Know the equation for the critical length (Lc) of a fiber.
5. Know the stress distribution on fibers of various lengths w/r Lc
in a composite.

Fillers, Fibers, and Reinforcements

(composite materials)

Fillers and Reinforcements

Solid materials which are added to polymers to increase bulk or improve
properties.
A. Generally inorganic
1. Inert fillers/extenders increase bulk and reduce cost
2. Active fillers produce specific improvements in resin
properties reinforcement fillers.
B. Some fillers form chemical bonds with the polymer they are
reinforcing. Carbon black crosslinks elastomers.

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

C. Other fillers act merely by taking up space
1. At surface of filler molecules form valence
bonds with the polymer molecules.
2. Immobilization and possible orientation of
polymer segments
a.Increase in Glass Transition Temperature
Wrong the Tg is a function of the structure of the
polymer , the filler will increase the service temp.,
but the Tg remains the same
Image of the Hubble Deep Field
b.Increase in stiffness of the material

D.Uniform distribution of fillers is important

a. Want as much surface area of the filler in contact with the polymer
b. MPS (Mean Particle Size) will affect the degree of stiffness

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Property Improvements
Any filler will increase some properties
Modulus of Elasticity (Stiffness)
WHY?

Fillers and Reinforcements

(continued)

Using extender fillers primarily results in changes in polymer

properties:
1. Increase in Density
2. Increase in Modulus of Elasticity, Compressive and Flexural Yield
Strength
3. Decreased shrinkage
4. Increased hardness and improvement in surface quality (?)
5. Increased HDT
6. Lower temperature dependence of mechanical and physical
properties
7. Reduced cost

Fillers and Reinforcements

(continued)

Using reinforcing fillers primarily results in changes in polymer

properties:
1. Tensile strength at yield and break
2. Increase in Modulus of Elasticity, Compressive and Flexural
Strength
3. Increased HDT
4. Lower temperature dependence of mechanical
and physical properties
5. Decreased Shrinkage
6. Improvement in creep behavior
7. Reduction of viscoelastic yield under load
8. Partial improvement in impact strength

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Considerations when specifying fillers
A. Optimum particle size distribution
B.
Possible catalytic activities at fillers surface
C.
Bonding properties with plastics matrix
D. Abrasive action in processing machinery
E.
Properties of the compound
F.
Problems with industrial safety
G. Cost
Disadvantages of fillers are usually attributed to the directional
effect of fillers effects are magnified in one direction, but
lessened in the other WHY???

Fillers, Fibers, and Reinforcements

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
A. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) (Chalk)
1. Mostly used as an extender
most important filler used
2. Low cost
3. High chemical purity
4. Does not form agglomerates
5. High degree of whiteness Pastel colors Vinyl siding
6. Mildly abrasive gentle on machinery toothpaste
7. Good dispersion
8. Increase in stiffness and Modulus of Elasticity

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
A. Calcium carbonate
9. Reduced Shrinkage
10. Improvement of surface finish
Image courtesy of heyyu
11. Lower plate out
12. Increased impact strength (coated grades)
13. Improved stability and aging resistance (coated grades)
14. Nontoxic, odorless, heat resistant up to 600 F
15. Low cost ($140/Metric ton)

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
B. Silicates (glass spheres hollow or solid) (Fibers will be covered later)
1. Uniform shape
2. Transparent
3. Compression resistant
4. High thermal stability
5. Do not have a big effect on
material flow

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
B. Silicates (continued)
6. Distribute stresses
7. Provide uniform shrinkage
8. Increase tensile and compressive
strength also flexural modulus
9. Commonly used with a silane
coupling agent
10.Hollow spheres add less weight to finished articles

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
C. Talc used a lot in PP
1.
2.
3.
4.

Very finely ground talc has a nucleating effect

Increase in stiffness and flexural modulus
Reduction of creep
Improves HDT and dimensional
stability
5. Improves shrinkage
reduces warpage

6. Increases surface hardness

7. Good thermal conductivity

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
C. Talc used a lot in PP
8. Decrease in tensile and impact
properties
9. Lower MFR
10. Changes color brown tint
11. May not be suitable for contact with
food
12. Pure products are $$$$
13. Abrasive

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
D. Kaolin hydrated aluminum silicates
1. Improves electrical properties and chemical resistance
2. Lowers crack tendency
3. Improves shock resistance
4. Improves surface quality
5. Improves permeability of base
material
Nanocomposites

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
D.Mica
1. High stiffness
2. High dimensional stability at elevated temps
3. Good dielectric properties

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
E.Other fillers
1. Precipitated Calcium Carbonate finer particle size, very pure,
more $$
2. Dolomite more abrasive, less weather resistance than CaCO3
3. Gypsum Calcium Sulphate increased acid resistance
4. Asbestos greatly increases stiffness health hazard

Fillers and Reinforcements (continued)

Types
E. Other fillers (continued)
5. Carbon Black - conductivity
6. Graphite - lubricant
7. Metal Flake - conduction
8. Magnetic fillers

Fibers
Glass, Aramid, and Carbon fibers are the only fibers of
importance for the reinforcement of plastics.
A. Processed as textile fibers
B. Possess a large length to diameter ratio (l/d>10)
C. Possess sufficient strength and flexibility

Fibers Glass

(continued)

Textile Glass Fibers fine fibers with almost uniform,

mainly round cross section, obtained from molten
glass
A. Textile glass fibers
1. Glass filament textile glass
fiber of practically unlimited
length with defined fiber
diameter drawn from molten
glass
2. Staple glass fiber textile glass
fiber of finite length (spun fiber) and defined fiber diameter
obtained from molten glass by
mechanical means or by the use of gaseous media

Fibers Glass

(continued)

B. 90% of glass fibers is E-glass (Aluminum Boron Silicate

Glass). Other specialty glasses are available for specific
applications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

R and S glass fibers for increased strength 50% higher

ECR glass for high acid resistance
Zirconium oxide for high alkaline environment
D-glass for improved dielectric properties
C-glass to build up anticorrosion layer against aggressive media.

Fibers Glass

(continued)

C. Surface Treatment usually applied to the glass during the

drawing process
1. Lubricants, coupling agents, and other additives
2. Affect the processing properties and reinforcing effects in plastics.

D.Safety Nontoxic and ecologically safe. Only issues are skin

irritation on contact and inhalation.

Fibers

Glass
$
(continued)

E.Costs additional costs incurred by using glass include the

added compounding and using specialized equipment to $
process.
PS, and PVC are generally not reinforced improvements in
$ 1. PE,
mechanical properties do not justify the additional cost
2. When using PA, PC, PET, PBT, and POM the cost is usually justified.
3. In PP, SAN, and ABS the glass fiber reinforced form possesses
properties that approach those of engineering plastics.

4. Generally the addition of glass reduces the toughness of a polymer.

Fibers Glass

(continued)

F.Critical fiber length

1. The linkages in the fiber/resin interface must allow the forces to be
conducted to the molding
2. Critical fiber length is mainly dependant on either interfacial shear
strength or filament diameter
3. Critical length
= tensile stress/(2*interfacial shear stress)

Fibers Glass (continued)

G.Considerations
1. Lower energy costs Why?

Faster cycle times Why?

2. 40% of reinforced plastics used in automotive

3. Shear forces must be kept low during processing

Dont want to break up the fibers reduce the strength of the components

Fibers Glass (continued)

I.

Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

J.

Increased Strength
Increased stiffness
Increased HDT
Reduced Shrinkage
Reduced coefficient of thermal expansion
Increased dimensional stability
Reduced cycle times
Reduced weight

Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reduced impact strength

Directional warping
Increased abrasion
Reduces surface appearance quality

Fibers Carbon
Carbon Fibers
A. Produced from either Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or pitch
(mainly pitch)
B. Forms
1. Filament yarns (woven) 1-320k filaments (1-12k used in
plastics)
2. Short fibers 3-6 mm long

C. Safety considerations
1. Special exhaust units used to evacuate
dust
2. Dust is highly conductive and electrical
equipment
3. Skin irritation

Fibers Carbon
Carbon Fibers
D.Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Increased strength
Increased extension at break
Increased modulus (stiffness)
Electrical conductivity
Reduced coefficient of
thermal expansion
6. Reduced weight

(continued)

Fibers Aramid
Aramid Fibers
1. Melt at 500C
1. Two forms
a. Unoriented type A
b. Oriented higher modulus
type B

2. Types
a. Kevlar
b. Nomex

3. Will absorb moisture properties will fail in a strongly

acidic or alkaline environment

Fibers Aramid (continued)

Aramid Fibers
D. Forms
1.
2.
3.
4.

Filament yarns (woven) 125-5k filaments

Spun fibers 40-60 mm
Short fibers 6 mm long
Pulps

E. Safety considerations
1. Special exhaust units used to evacuate dust
2. Dust is flammable and can ignite
3. Skin irritation

Fibers Aramid

(continued)

Aramid Fibers
F. Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Increases strength
Increased modulus
Reduced coefficient of thermal expansion
Reduced weight
Greatly increased impact strength at elevates stress rates
antiballistic
6. Lubricational effect when surfaces containing Aramid fibers rub
together

Fibers Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous Fibers
A. Ceramic fibers high temperature, very abrasive
1. Aluminum Silica
2. Aluminum Oxide
3. Silicone Carbide
4. Zirconia Silica
B. Metal Fibers high strength, abrasive
1. Aluminum
2. Nickel
3. Stainless Steel
C. Polymer Fibers
1. Nylon
2. PP
3. PET
4. PE