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Moral Reasoning and Ethical

Theories
Good engineering, good business, and
good ethics work together in the long run.

What is Morality?
It concerns conduct: right and wrong, good and
bad, the rules that ought to be followed
It is associated with consequences to ourselves,
others, and the environment
The right or good is linked to value
judgements generally thought to promote fairness,
health, and safety while minimizing injustice

Ethical Theories
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism - the view that we ought to produce
the most good for the most people, giving equal
consideration to everyone affected
Rule-Utilitarianism is applying those rules that if
generally adopted would produce the most good for the
most people
Act-Utilitarianism is applying rules in order to produce
the most good for the most people involved in the
particular situation (rules become at most rules of
thumb)

Ethical Theories
Utilitarianism & Theories of Good
Deeply satisfying pleasures mixed with some
inevitable pains & a pattern of activities and
relationships that one can affirm as valuable
overall (Mill)
Things that satisfy rational desires, e.g., love and
creativity. Rational desires are those we would
approve of if we scrutinized our desires in light of
all relevant information about the world and our
own psychology (Brandt)

Ethical Theories
Rights Ethics
Rights Ethics - the view that human rights - not
good consequences - are fundamental.
Acts of respect for human rights are obligatory,
regardless of whether they always maximize good
Truthfulness important in terms of its contribution to
liberty, especially within relationships based on trust
Complex in that there are many types of rights that may
conflict and must be balanced

Ethical Theories
Rights Ethics & Liberty Rights
Liberty Rights (Locke) - places duties on other
people not to interfere with ones life.
To be a person entails having human rights to life,
liberty, and the property generated by ones labor
property thought of as whatever we gain by mixing
our labor with things
Views reflected by todays Libertarians

Ethical Theories
Rights Ethics - Liberty & Welfare Rights
Liberty & Welfare Rights (Melden) - having
moral rights presupposes the capacity to show
concern for others and to be accountable within a
moral community
extent of rights determined in terms of
interrelationships among persons
recognizes right to community benefits for living
minimally decent human life

Ethical Theories
Duty Ethics
Duty Ethics - the focus on duties which
correspondence to and sustain fundamental rights
List of duties based on respect for persons and
belief in human capacity for moral autonomy
For example, if you have a right not to be
deceived, then I have a duty not to deceive you.
To deceive you is to undermine your ability to
carry out your plans based on available truths and
within relationships based on trust

Ethical Theories
Duty Ethics - List of Duties
Kant
Be truthful
Be fair
Make reparation for
harm done
Show gratitude for
kindness extended
Seek to improve ones
own character and
talents

Gert
Dont

cause pain
disable
deprive of freedom
deprive of pleasure
deceive
cheat

Do
keep your promises
obey the law
do your duty

Ethical Theories
Duty Ethics - A Closer Look at Duties
Are duties universally applicable and
exceptionless? Is duty absolute?
What about when duties conflict with each other,
e.g., do not deceive versus protect innocent
life
Prima facie duties - those that have justified
exceptions or limits

Summary
Morality - good is linked to value judgements
Ethical Theories - attempt to provide perspective
on moral responsibilities
Utilitarianism
Rule-Utilitarianism
Act-Utilitarianism

Rights Ethics
Duty Ethics

Testing and Refining Ethical


Theories

Is it applicable and coherent?


Is it consistent?
Is it based on valid information?
Is it sufficiently comprehensive to provide
guidance?
Is it compatible with our moral convictions?

Example of Refining a Theory


A Theory of Justice (John Rawls)
(1) Each person is entitled to the most extensive
amount of political liberty compatible with an
equal amount for others
(2) Differences in social power and economic
benefits are justified only when they are likely to
benefit everyone, including members of the most
disadvantaged groups

Virtue Ethics
Primary focus on the kinds of persons we should
aspire to be
Virtues are
desirable way of relating to others (individuals or
groups)
desirable habits or tendencies of motive, attitudes, and
emotion as well as conduct

Vices are
undesirable habits and tendencies

By extension, virtues and vices apply to


organizations

Aristotle: Virtue and the Golden


Mean
Defined the moral virtues as tendencies, acquired
through habit formation, to reach a proper balance
between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire, and
attitude (balance between excess and deficiency)
Example: Truthfulness is the mean between
revealing all information in violation of tact and
confidentiality (excess) and being secretive or
lacking in candor (deficiency) in dealing with
truth

Gandhi: Seven Social Sins


(Vices)

Politics without principle


Wealth without work
Commerce without morality
Pleasure without conscience
Education without character
Science without humanity
Worship without personal sacrifice

MacIntyre: Virtue and Practices


Internal goods define what the practices are all
about (external goods are money and prestige)
virtues defined by reference to its internal good
professional responsibility
Self-direction virtues
understanding, cognition (as grounded in moral concern)
commitment and putting understanding into action (courage,
self-discipline, honesty)

Public-spirited virtues
Team-work virtues
Proficiency virtues

Pragmatism
A theory about morality that emphasizes the
limitations of abstract rules (anti-theory)
Not to be confused with crass expediency
Good consequences emphasized, but so too are
rights, duties and virtues within a given context
Flexibility emphasized
Like act-utilitarianism, there is danger of paying
insufficient attention moral principles through
immersion in specific contexts.

Can We Reduce Moral Reasoning to


Custom, Religion, or Self-Interest?
Customs or ethical relativism is view that values
are reducible to conventions, customs, or laws
would we accept bribes, cruelty, and intolerance?

Religion and divine command ethics


who are those among us who know precisely what
Gods commands are or are not on each issue?

Self-interest and ethical egoism is view that the


sole duty of each individual is to maximize his or
her own good
is everything act reducible to personal gain, alone?

Meaningful Work and


Professionals Commitments
Craft Motives
attraction to challenging work
wanting to create objects and systems

Moral Motives
contributing to the well-being of other human beings

Compensation and Self-Interest


money, power, and recognition motivate and guide
human conduct
reasonable regard for ones self-interest can be a moral
virtue (prudence) as long as it does not crowd out other
virtues

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