Peano Curves in Fractals

Space-Filling
Curves
An Introduction
Presented by Levi Valgaerts
JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg
Contents
1. Introductory section
2. Types of space-filling curves
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Hilbert space-filling curve

The Peano space-filling curve
The Sierpinski space-filling curve
The Lebesgue space-filling curve
3. Application of space-filling curves
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Basic concepts from set theory: surjective,

injective, bijective mapping
1.
Surjective map from A onto B:
f ( A) B
with
f ( A) f ( x) Ran f | x A Dom f
the image of A under the function f
Basic concepts from set theory: surjective,

injective, bijective mapping
2.
Injective map from A into B:
x1 x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
3.
Bijective map from A onto B:
f is injective and surjective
Basic notations
n
Subsets of
Binary notation:
I 0,1 ,
0,1
02 b1b2b3... b1 / 2 b2 / 22 b3 / 23 ..., bj 0 or 1
Ternary notation:
03 t1t2t3... t1 / 3 t2 / 32 t3 / 33 ..., t j 0,1 or 2

Quaternary notation:
04 q1q2q3... q1 / 4 q2 / 42 q3 / 43 ..., q j 0,1, 2 or 3
Basic notations (remarks)
Periods
02 b1b2b3...bn 02 b1b2b3...bnbnbn ...
Finite binaries
02 b1b2b3 ...bn 02 b1b2b3 ...bn 000...
02 b1b2b3 ...bnb 02 b1b2b3 ...bn (b 1)1, b 1
e.g.
021 0202
because
1
1
n 2i 2n1
Curve definition
f : a, b
n is continuous, then f ([ a, b])
If
is called a curve. Without loss of generality we can assume the
domain to be I, f(0) and f(1) are the beginning and endpoint.
Notation:
f (t ) x ( x1 , x2 (, x3 )), t I
Parameter representation with component functions:

x1 (t )
x2 (t )
( x (t ))
3
Space-filling curve (SFC) definition

Curves that pass through every point of an n-dimensional region
with positive area (for n=2) or volume (for n=3), such as the unit
square in 2 or the unit cube in 3 , are called space-filling
curves.
Two main characteristics:

continuous
surjective
It can be shown that if f generates a space-filling curve, then it
can not be bijective.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Hilbert curve: geometric generation
If I can be mapped continuously on , then after partitioning

I into four congruent subintervals and into four congruent
subsquares, each subinterval can be mapped continuously
onto one of the subsquares. This partitioning can be carried
out ad infinitum.
The subsquares must be arranged such that adjacent
subintervals are mapped onto adjacent subsquares.
Inclusion relationship: if an interval corresponds to a square,
then its subintervals must correspond to the subsquares of
that square.
This process defines a mapping f h ( I ) , called the Hilbert
space-filling curve.

1/
2/
3/
4/
1
1/
16
2/
16
3/
16
4/
1,1
16
1,1
16/
16
0,0
16
0,0
1st iteration
2nd iteration
3rd iteration
6th iteration

The mapping f h : I
is surjective: with every sequence
of nested closed squares corresponds a sequence of nested closed
intervals that define a unique t0 I .
onto
The mapping f h : I
is continuous: in the nth iteration I

is partitioned in 22n subintervals, thus
t1 , t2 I t1 t2 1/ 22n then f h (t1 ) f h (t2 ) 5 / 2n

onto
The mapping f h : I
is nowhere differentiable.
The Hilbert curve: a complex representation [Sagan]
Establish a formula to calculate the exact coordinates of an

image point if
t k / 22 n , n 0,1, 2,3,..., k 0,1, 2,3,...22 n
Use complex representation z , and affine transformations to wich will be subjected recursively.
Give an orientation to each subsquare such that the exit point
of a subsquare coincides with the entry point of the next
subsquare.
The Hilbert curve: a complex representation
0th iteration
1
2
1st iteration
1
4
1
2
3
4
2nd iteration

The four basic transformations (2 dimensional case):
1
1 i
h2 z z
2
2 2
x1 1 0
: h0
x2 2 1
x1 1 1
: h1
x2 2 0
x1 1 1
: h2
x2 2 0
1
i
h3 z zi 1
2
2
x1 1 0 1 x1 1 2 1
x1 1
: h3
H 3 h3
x2 2 1 0 x2 2 1 2
x2 2
1
h0 z zi
2
1
i
h1 z z
2
2
1 x1 1 0 1
x1 1
H 0 h0
0 x2 2 0 2 x2 2
0 x1 1 0 1 x1 1
H1 h1
1 x2 2 1 2 x2 2
0 x1 1 1 1
x1 1
H 2 h2
1 x2 2 1 2
x2 2
Represent t I as t 04 q1q2 q3 ..., with q j 0,1, 2 or 3

f h (t ) hq1 , f h (t ) hq1 hq2 , ad infinitum:
f h (t ) lim hq1 hq2 hq3 ...hqn

n
For finite quaternaries (edges of subintervals in nth iteration):

f h (04 q1q2 q3 ... qn ) hq1 hq2 hq3 ...hqn h0 h0 h0 ...
0
f h (04 q1q2 q3 ... qn ) hq1 hq2 hq3 ...hqn
0
continued...
n
0
1
hq1 hq2 hq3 ...hqn ... j
j 1 2
0
1
f h (04 q1q2 q3 ...) j
j 1 2
f h is cont .
H q0 H q1 H q2 H q3 ...H q j1 hq j
H q0 H q1 H q2 H q3 ...H q j1 hq j
Taking into account some properties of H q j :
1
f h (04 q1q2 q3 ...) j
j 1 2
e0 j e3 j
H 0 H 3 hq j ,
with ekj number of ks preceding q j (mod 2), k 0 or 3

Further simplifications of the formula are possible...

An example:
0 5/ 8
f h (04 203) h2 h0 h3
0
3/
4

h2
(5 / 8,3/ 4)
h0
(0,0)
h3
Approximating polygons for the Hilbert curve

The polygonal line that runs through the points
f h (0), f h (1/ 22 n ), f h (2 / 22 n ), f h (3 / 22 n ),..., f h ((2 2 n 1) / 2 2 n ), f h (1),
is called the nth approximating polygon or a discrete space filling

curve.
Parametrization:
k
k 1
k 1
k
2n
pn : I : pn (t ) 2 (t 2 n ) f h ( 2 n ) 2 (t 2 n ) f h ( 2 n ),
2
2
2
2
for k / 22 n t (k 1) / 22 n , k 0,1, 2,3,...22 n 1
2n
{ pn } converges uniformly to the Hilbert curve

The Hilbert curve: representation through

grammars
Make use of four distinct templates to generate the discrete

Hilbert curve: H,A,B and C.
These templates will be translated to a first iteration of the
curve according to a fixed scheme.
The Hilbert curve: representation through

grammars
The resulting rules and transitions can be used to implement

the recursive construction of the discrete Hilbert curve.
3 dimensional SFCs
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Peano curve: definition
fp : I
with
03 t1 (k t2 t3 )(k t2 t4 t5 )...
f p (03 t1t2t3t4 ...)
0 (k t1 t )(k t1 t3 t )...
2
4
3
with kt j 2 t j (t j 0,1, 2) and k is the th it. of k

is surjective and continuous on I, and represents a SFC.
More interesting: geometric generation according to Hilbert
The Peano curve: geometric generation

From the defining formula we can derive:
030 23 4 ...
f p (0301t3t4t5 ...)

031 2 3 4 ...
030 234 ...

f p (0300t3t4t5 ...)
030 2 3 4 ...
1
3
3
2
3
1 2 fp 1 1 2
t ,
0, ,
9 9
3 3 3
1 fp 1 1
t 0,
0, 0,
9
3 3
...
1
3
2
3
The Peano curve: geometric generation
1st iteration
2nd iteration
3rd iteration
The Peano curve: a complex representation
Define orientation of the subsquares:
1
1
1 i
Define similarity transforms: p0 z z, p1 z z ,...
3
3
3 3
x1 1 x1 1
with p j Pj p j , j 0,1,...8
x2 3 x2 3
The Peano curve: a complex representation
Use ternary representation of t I :

03 t1t2 ...t2 n 2t2 n ... 09 (3t1 t2 )(3t3 t4 )...(3t2 n 1 t2 n )...
f p (t ) lim p3t1 t2 p3t3 t4 ... p3t2 n1 t2 n

n
Continue as with Hilberts curve...
we get the same result as in Peanos definition
Approximating polygons for the Peano curve
The Peano curve: representation through

grammars
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Sierpinski curve: generation

Originaly defined as a map f s from I onto
2
1,1 , but it can be considered as a map
from I onto a right isosceles triangle .
Partition I into 2 n congruent subintervals and into

2 n congruent subtriangles.
(1,1)
(0, 0)
(2, 0)
n=1
n=0
n=2
In deriving an algabraic representation it is easier to divide I

into 22n subintervals, thus using quaternaries:
1
S q0 S q1 S q2 ...S q j1 sq j
j
j 1 2
f s (04 q1q2 q3 ...)

with similarity transforms:
S0 z z / 2
S1 z zi / 2 1
S 2 z zi / 2 1 i
S3 z z / 2 1
x1 1 1 0 x1 1 0 1 x1 1
: S0
S0 s0
x2 2 0 1 x2 2 0 2 x2 2
x1 1 0 1 x1 1 2 1 x1 1
: S1
S1 s1
x2 2 1 0 x2 2 0 2 x2 2
x1 1 0 1 x1 1 2 1 x1 1
: S2
S2 s2
x2 2 1 0 x2 2 2 2 x2 2
x1 1 1 0 x1 1 2 1 x1 1
: S3
S3 s3
x2 2 0 1 x2 2 0 2 x2 2
Taking into account some properties of Sq j :
f s (04 q1q2 q3 ...) j ( 1) j S j sq j

j 1 2
with j number of 2s preceding q j (mod 2)
and j number of 1s and 2s preceding q j (mod 4)
The Sierpinski curve: approximating polygons
(1,1)
(0, 0)
(2, 0)
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

The Lebesgue curve: introduction

Introduction of a remarkable subset of I, the Cantor Set
{03 (2t1 )(2t2 )(2t3 )... | t j 0 or 1} ,of wich all elements can be
represented by
2t1 2t2 2t3 2t4

2 3 4 ..., with t j 0 or 1
3 3
3
3
may be constructed by recursively removing the middle third of

every closed subinterval beginning with I. The numbers that are
generated in this proces do not contain a 1 in their ternary
representation.
The Lebesgue curve: introduction
1.
1 2
0, ,1
3 3
2.
1 2 1 2 7 8
0, , , ,1
9 9 3 3 9 9
3.
...
1
27
2 1
27 9
2
9
7
27
8
27
1
3
2
3
7
9
8
9
The Lebesgue curve: definition

We define the continuous and surjective mapping f :
02 t1t3t5 ...
f (03 (2t1 )(2t2 )(2t3 )...)
02 t2t4t6 ...
and extend f continuously into I by linear interpolation in every
interval that is removed in the generation of :
1
fl (t )
f (an )(bn t ) f (bn )(t an ) , an t bn
bn an
with an , bn removed in the nth iteration step. Further we say

fl (t ) f (t ) on . Than f l defines the Lebesgue space-filling curve.
The Lebesgue curve: generation and approximating polygons
1st iteration
2nd iteration
4th iteration
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.

Application of space-filling curves

2 dimensional SFCs give a recipe for going through a set of 2
dimensional data that are arranged on a grid:
going through pixels that make up an image being scanned

matrix operations in linear algebra
going through / representing a 2D computational grid
...
Favorable property: better exploitation of the 2D locality due to

the recursive nature / self-similarity.

1.
Representation of computational grids (1)
Acceptable computational complexity is required in implementing computational grids. Especially for adaptively refined grids
the manipulation part cannot be too expensive choice of appropriate data structures is important.
Often applied: space trees of which the leaves correspond to the
grid cells that are enumerated by a discrete SFC. For adaptively
refined grids we use different iterates depending on the level of
refinement.

1.
Representation of computational grids (2)

2.
Implementation with respect to cache-efficiency (1)
Data access of hierarchically stored data can be slow. By using

SFC we try to process the data linearly in a way that reduces data
access time and cache misses.
Build a fixed number of stacks to avoid random access in the
memory, such that data (information in a grid point) needed in
the operation sequence is always on top. The corresponding
processing order of the grid cells is defined by a SFC.

2.
Use of two stacks with a Peano curve on a 2D regular grid

2.
Consequences:
Memory behaviour becomes deterministic and processing order

is easily inverted.
The discrete operator has to be decomposed per cell such that
the accumulated effect corresponds to the execution of the whole
operator after one run over all cells.

3.
Grid partitioning and parallellisation (1)
For running a PDE solver on a parallel computer we need to

partition the data and map each block to a processor such that data
transfer between the processors is as small as possible.
Multi-dimensional data can be mapped to a one-dimensional
sequence using the inverse of a discrete SFC mapping. The points
on I that are the images of nodes in space can be grouped together
and mapped on a processor. We use seperators to form partitions
that contain the same number of nodes for perfect load balance.

3.
Grid partitioning and parallellisation (2)
Set of points: S {xi | xi }
{xi | s j f 1 ( xi ) s j 1}
S
j
Ij
j
where I j of equal workload, gives small seperators f ( I j ) \

, in fact quasi-optimal seperator sizes where other partition
methods fail.
List of references
[1] Hans Sagan, Space-Filling Curves, Springer-Verlag, 1994.
[2] Michael Bader, Raumfllende Kurven, Institut fr Informatik
der Technischen Universitt Mnchen, 2004.
[3] F. Gnther, M. Mehl, M. Pgl, C. Zenger, A cache-aware
algorithm for PDEs on hierarchical data structures based on
space-filling curves.
[4] Gerhard Zumbusch, Adaptive Parallel Multilevel Methods for
Partial Differential Equations.
[5] R. Dafner, D. Cohen-Or, Y. Matias, Context-based Space
Filling Curves, 2000.
[6] www.wikipedia.org

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Peano Curves in Fractals

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Space-Filling

Presented by Levi Valgaerts

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert space-filling curve

3. Application of space-filling curves

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert space-filling curve

3. Application of space-filling curves

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

Basic concepts from set theory: surjective,

Surjective map from A onto B:

Basic concepts from set theory: surjective,

Injective map from A into B:

Bijective map from A onto B:

f is injective and surjective

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

03 t1t2t3... t1 / 3 t2 / 32 t3 / 33 ..., t j 0,1 or 2

04 q1q2q3... q1 / 4 q2 / 42 q3 / 43 ..., q j 0,1, 2 or 3

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

Basic notations (remarks)

02 b1b2b3...bn 02 b1b2b3...bnbnbn ...

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

Parameter representation with component functions:

Space-filling curve (SFC) definition

Two main characteristics:

The Hilbert space-filling curve

3. Application of space-filling curves

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert space-filling curve

3. Application of space-filling curves

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: geometric generation

If I can be mapped continuously on , then after partitioning

The Hilbert curve: geometric generation

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: geometric generation

The Hilbert curve: geometric generation

is continuous: in the nth iteration I

t1 , t2 I t1 t2 1/ 22n then f h (t1 ) f h (t2 ) 5 / 2n

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation [Sagan]

Establish a formula to calculate the exact coordinates of an

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation

Represent t I as t 04 q1q2 q3 ..., with q j 0,1, 2 or 3

f h (t ) lim hq1 hq2 hq3 ...hqn

For finite quaternaries (edges of subintervals in nth iteration):

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation

Taking into account some properties of H q j :

with ekj number of ks preceding q j (mod 2), k 0 or 3

The Hilbert curve: a complex representation

Further simplifications of the formula are possible...

Approximating polygons for the Hilbert curve

is called the nth approximating polygon or a discrete space filling

{ pn } converges uniformly to the Hilbert curve

The Hilbert curve: representation through

Make use of four distinct templates to generate the discrete

JASS 2005 Saint Petersburg

The Hilbert curve: representation through