Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Analysis
IMRAN AHMAD
Director Technical
SUMICO Technologies (Pvt) Ltd
+92 321 427 6092
imran.ahmad@sumico.com.pk
www.sumico.com.pk
Timings
1st Session
9000-1030
Tea Break
1030-1045
2nd Session
1045-1300
Lunch Break(Prayer)
1300-1400
3rd Session
1400-1530
Tea Break
1545-1600
4th Session
1600-1700
Basics of Vibration
Introduction:
What is Vibration?
What is Vibration?
What is Vibration ?
What is Vibration?
Dynamic Force
__________________
Dynamic Resistance
Vibration Fundamentals
How Much Vibration is Too Much ?
1. Use Absolute Vibration Levels
- Given by machine makers
- Published Vibration Severity Standards
eg. ISO 2372, VDI 2056, BS 4675
2. Use Relative Vibration Levels
ISO 10816-3
ISO 10816-3
Just
Tolerable
Allowable
Just Tolerable
Allowable
Allowable
Good
Good
15 kW<
Medium Machines
<75kW
Small
Machines< 15 kW
<300 kW
foundations
Group K
Just Tolerable
on special
Group M
Good
Large Machines
with rigid and heavy
foundations whose
natural Frequency
exceeds
machine speed
Group G
45
28
18
11.2
7.1
4.5
2.8
1.8
1.12
1.71
0.45
0.28
0.18
Not
Permissible
10 times = 20dB
Not
Permissible
Not
Permissible
Vibration Characteristics
Amplitude
How Much
Frequency
How Often
Phase
When
Vibration Characteristics
Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of vibration expressed in terms of signal level (millivolts or milliamps) or in engineering units
( Micron, mils, milli meter per second or inch per second)
There are many ways of measuring vibration amplitude levels, the most common are: peak to peak, zero to peak, root mean
square (RMS), average and crest factor.
Zero to peak or peak is the measurement from the zero line to the top of the positive peak or the bottom of the negative peak.
Peak
1.414 x RMS
RMS
Peak to peak is the distance from the top of the positive peak to the bottom of the negative peak. This measurement is used
most often when referring to displacement amplitude
Pk-Pk
2 x PEAK VALUE
Vibration Characteristics
Avg
0 to Peak
RMS
Average
Amplitude
Time t
Peak to Peak
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
is the distance that shaft moves in relation to reference point. The total movement of the shaft is
measured in Peak to Peak.
Velocity
is the displacement of the shaft in relation to time? It is measured in RMS (Root Mean Square) or
Peak.
Acceleration
is defined as the change in velocity over time. With this value we want the maximum impact (Force)
generated, so we use the Peak or RMS measurement.
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
Pk-Pk
Velocity
mm/sec
RMS
Acceleration
gs
Pk
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
mils
Pk-Pk
Velocity
inch/sec
Pk
Acceleration
gs
RMS
The three types of amplitude measurements used to display data are directly related
to each other
Changing from one amplitude unit to the next alters the way in which the data is
displayed
Ex15
0.35
5
140
0.30
120
4
PK
Accelerationin
inMicrons
G-s
P-P
Displacement
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
A8 - Example 15
-F1H Fan Inboard Horizontal
0.25
100
3
0.20
80
Route Spectrum
22-Aug-02 11:30:50
0.10
40
1
0.05
20
20000
40000
Frequency in CPM
00
0
0.15
60
2
60000
Vibration Characteristics
Vibration Amplitude Measuring Units
Gs or in/s2
(180 deg phase lead)
Acceleration, a
Velocity,
Acceleration
v=a/2
Velocity
Mm/ses or inches/sec
(90 deg phase lead )
Displacement = a/4
f2
Displacement
m 0r .000inch or Mils
90
90
Time
Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
Vibration Characteristics
Frequency
Measure of the number of cycles of vibration that occur in a specific period of time
Measured in Hz /CPM
Converted by a factor of 60
Frequency =
1
1 =
=
Period
T
Cycles
Second
Vibration Characteristics
2.
3.
CPM / 60
1CPM = 1RPM
Frequency/Turning Speed
1485 CPM
(1rpm = 1cpm)
24.75 Hz
1 Orders
Vibration Characteristics
Frequency
The table below demonstrates the relationship between the different frequency units over a range of frequencies.
1500
2250
3000
6000
12000
Hz
25
37.5
50
100
200
Orders
1.5
Stress = Displacement
0-600 CPM
Fatigue = Velocity
600-120,000 CPM
Force = Acceleration
Above 120,000 CPM
Vibration Institute
recommendation
Vibration Characteristics
Significance of Frequency
A & B are
180 degrees
out of phase
1 Cycle = 360
90
A
B
B
A
A & B are
90 degrees
out of phase
Absolute phase
Absolute phase is the relationship of the Peak of vibration and a fixed reference Signal
(once per revolution)
Relative Phase
Absolute Phase
Phase lag angle between once per turn marker and
first positive peak in a vibration waveform
b
Absolute Phase
= a/b X 360o
Relative Phase
o
110
Velocity
signal B
Velocity
signal A
Significance of Phase
-
Conversion of Units
Metric Units
V = DF / 19,100
V = 3690A / F
A = DF2 / 70,470,910
D = 19,100V / F
A = VF / 3690
D = 70,470,910 / F2
Conversion of Units
English Units
V = DF / 19,100
V = 93,640A / F
A = DF2 / 1,790,000,000
D = 19,100V / F
A = VF / 93,640
D = 1,790,000,000 / F2
Time Waveforms
You can also look at vibration as the amount of Time it takes to complete a particular
cycle
If we examine the motion of a forcing function on a fan blade Heavy Spot over a period of
time a distinct signature will occur.
Time Waveforms
Unfortunately there are multiple sources of forcing functions that can emit from a
machine or component.
Thus resulting in the time waveform becoming complex in nature
Ex15
0.4
Route Waveform
22-Aug-02 11:33:16
0.3
0.2
EX 8
1.0
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec Acceleration in G-s
A8 - Example 15
-F2V Fan Outboard Vertical
PK = .1495
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 832. (13.86 Hz)
Los - Example 8
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
PK(+) = .3263
Analyze
PK(-) Spectrum
= .3572
15-Nov-95
CRESTF=10:00:16
3.38
0.1
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.0
0.8
-0.1
0.6
-0.2
-0.3
0.4
-0.4
0
50
100
0.2
150
200
Time in mSecs
250
300
350
Time: 120.44
Ampl: -.07595
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
Label: Looseness
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Tim
e
y
enc
u
eq
Fr
Frequency Domain
The frequency domain (Spectrum) plots the data as Amplitude in the (Y) axis and
Frequency in the (X) axis. This data is derived from the time domain mathematical
manipulation of the time waveform.
Recall the waveform and spectrum from the previous slide. If you tried to determine
all the frequencies from the waveform plot, you would need all day just to analyse
one point of data.
As the FFT plots the frequencies from the waveform for you the analysis of this data
becomes easier and reduces the amount of time needed for analysis of each point.
Ex15
0.4
A8 - Example 15
-F2V Fan Outboard Vertical
0.3
PK = .1495
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 832. (13.86 Hz)
PK(+) = .3263
PK(-) = .3572
CRESTF= 3.38
0.1
0.0
-0.1
Los - Example 8
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
Analyze Spectrum
15-Nov-95 10:00:16
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.8
Acceleration in G-s
0.2
EX 8
1.0
Route Waveform
22-Aug-02 11:33:16
0.6
0.4
-0.2
0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
250
300
350
Time: 120.44
Ampl: -.07595
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
Label: Looseness
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
Harmonic - Orders
Harmonics are cursors that are exact multiples of the primary frequency
They are used to locate other frequencies related to the primary cursor
EX3
1.0
Analyze Spectrum
15-Nov-95 10:00:16
RM S Velocity in mm/Sec
0.8
Los - Example 3
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
0.6
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.4
Therefore:
0.2
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
Harmonic cursors can be used to show non-synchronous and subsynchronous harmonics depending upon the energy of the primary
frequency
0.5
C1 - Example 4
-MOH MOTOR OUTBOARD HORIZONTAL
Route Spectrum
09-Feb-00 12:41:33
OVRALL= .5785 V-DG
RMS = .5716
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2937.
RPS = 48.95
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency in kCPM
120
140
160
Freq: 2.937
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .01038
Synchronous Energy
EX 8
1.0
Los - Example 8
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
Analyze Spectrum
15-Nov-95 10:00:16
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
24000
Frequency in CPM
Label: Looseness
3) Gearmesh
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
Non-Synchronous Energy
E5
2.0
BF - Example 5
-R4A ROLL BRG. #4 - AXIAL
Route Spectrum
12-Jul-96 17:16:42
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
24000
30000
Freq: 3888.9
Ordr: 10.24
Spec: .748
Sub-Synchronous Energy
Examples of sub-synchronous
energy are:
Belt Frequencies
Cage Frequencies
Energy in a Spectrum
Synchronous
N x RPM where N is an integer
Sub-synchronous
<1 x RPM
Non-synchronous
F x RPM where F is >1x RPM but not integer
Another component
Cage frequencies
Imbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
1.0
Gears etc
0.8
EX 8
Los - Example 8
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
Analyze Spectrum
15-Nov-95 10:00:16
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
Label: Looseness
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
Another component
Antifriction bearings
Electrical
System resonances
E5
2.0
BF - Example 5
-R4A ROLL BRG. #4 - AXIAL
Route Spectrum
12-Jul-96 17:16:42
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
Label: Outer Race Defect
Priority: 1
24000
30000
Freq: 3888.9
Ordr: 10.24
Spec: .748
Lines of Resolution
The number of lines of resolution selected are divided into the maximum frequency
scale (Fmax) to arrive at the bin width (BW).
The better the resolution the more accurate the frequency displayed
BW = Fmax/LOR
All the energy within the bin is summed up to give a single amplitude
frequency
Resolution
BW = Fmax / LOR
Bandwidth
Centre Frequency
Lines of Resolution
TA16
0.20
0.5
L2 - TA 16
-M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
Analyze Spectrum
13-Mar-01 09:14:16
09:13:53
PK = .3852
.7078
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1497.
1496.
RPS = 24.95
24.94
PK Acceleration in G-s
PK Acceleration in G-s
0.16
0.4
0.12
0.3
0.08
0.2
0.04
0.1
0
0
400
800
Frequency in Hz
1200
1600
OVERVIEW
What is your present and future budget for equipment & training?
Environment?
INSTRUMENT TYPES
The Highest rate at which data can be captured and displayed without leaving
any gaps in the analysis.
Vibration Transducers
Overview
and
Selection
Transducer Types
Seismic:- Bearing relative to space.
Velocity Pickups
Accelerometers
Shaft Contact Displacement Probes (including Shaft Sticks and Shaft Riders)
Seismic Transducer
VELOCITY PICKUP
Velocity Pickups
ADVANTAGES
Self- Generating
No On-board Electronics
Strong signal
Note :- There are two types of velocity pickups the above advantages do not apply to
piezoelectric velocity transducers.
SESMIC TRANSDUCERS
ACCELEROMETERS
AMP
AMP
Accelerometers - advantages
Rugged.
High stability.
Accelerometer Types
The three most common are :
Compression Type
Shear Type
Acoustic Shield
Seismic Mass
Piezoelectric Material
Preload Stud
Electric connector
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Amplifier
Disadvantages
Widely used
ICP Circuit
Piezoelectric Material
Seismic Mass
Preload Sleeve
Acoustic Shield
Piezoelectric Material
Seismic Mass
Electric connector
Post
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Circuit
Disadvantage:
Mass
Piezoelectric Disks
Base
Non-contact Pickups
MAGNETIC
FIELD
NON-CONTACT PICKUP
PICKUP
COIL
SHAFT
OSCILLATOR
DETECTOR
DC
GAP
METER
AMPLIFIER
SIGNAL SENSOR
DISPLACEMENT
SIGNAL - TO
ANALYSER OR
MONITOR
Shaft Sticks
Shaft Riders
Shaft Rider
PICKUP MOUNTING STUD
MACHINE HOUSING
NON-METALLIC TIP
SHAFT SURFACE
safety issue
Vibration Transducers
SensorsTransducersProbesWhat is it?
.It basically converts mechanical vibration
to an electrical signal
Accelerometer
Charge Type &
Line Drive
Constant Voltage &
Constant Current
Velocity Probe
Displacement
Shaft Riders
Proximity Probes
(Eddy Current Probes)
Accelerometers
Velocity Sensors
Radial Casing
Vibration
Axial Shaft
Vibration & Position
Monitoring Techniques
Relative Amplitude
100000000
10000000
1000000
Accelerometer
100000
10000
1000
Velocity Transducer
100
Prox. Probe
10
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Hz
Measurement Parameter
Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
Monitoring Techniques
Vib
Acceleration
accentuates HIGH frequencies,
and attenuates LOW frequencies.
Acceleration
Velocity
flat treats all frequencies equally.
Velocity
Displacement
accentuates LOW frequencies,
and attenuates HIGH frequencies.
Displacement
Freq
Comparison of Transducers
Proximity Probes
Accelerometers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to install
Good for detecting high
frequency faults
No moving parts
Good dynamic/frequency
range
Small/light weight
Withstands high temperatures
Runout problems
Sensitive to shaft materials
Installation
Limited freq. range. No detection of
rolling element bearing faults
Temperature restrictions
External proximitor needed
Frequency Range
Relative Sensitivity
30
dB
20
10
Frequency Response of Sensor
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
2Hz
10KHz
Frequency [xf0]
Vibration Pickups
Journal
Bearings
instability
Shaft
Rotating
Speed
Blades
2x
Rolling Element
Bearings
Gear
3x
1 KHz
3KHz
Velocity Probe
Accelerometer
25KHz
Sensitivity
Mounting
Pad
Dual Rail
Magnet
Stud
Mount
Flat
Magnet
Hand
Probe
Freq
1.5KHz
10KHz
32KHz
Frequency Range
What is the frequency range of yourInstrumentCables
Sensor Sensor Coupling
Cable length ?
Monitoring Techniques
Types of Bearings
Journal
JournalBearings
Bearings
Stationary
StationarySignals
Signals
Relative
RelativeLow
LowFrequency
Frequency
Modulated
ModulatedRandom
RandomNoise
Noise
Pulsating
Pulsatingsignals
signals
High
HighFrequency
Frequency
Use Accelerometers
Although there are many different types of transducers available, the most common
type used for day to day data collection are Accelerometers.
Data Quality
Whether it is your job to collect the data and/or analyse the data it is important to
understand that the technologies will not give you the answer to a machines problem
unless you have collected meaningful, quality data
There are certain considerations that must be taken prior to any data being collected,
these are:
Variable speed machines - it is very important to collect data with the correct running
speed enter into the analyser
Transmission Path
In many cases the further you are away from the initial event the weaker the signal will
become, resulting in the data appearing to be lower in value.
In more extreme cases the impact can be lost amongst other machine noise by the time it
has reached your transducer, resulting in no detection of a machine problem.
Usually the best place to acquire data from a machine, is at the bearings.
This is because the bearings are the only part of the machine that connect
the internal rotating components to the stationary components (Casing)
Repeatable Data
This consistency will allow you to trend the machinery condition and properly judge the
progression of faults
In order to aid with repeatable data the analyser requests for data to be collected in
certain locations on the machine.
Measurement Points
A measurement point is defined as three alpha numeric digits along with their
respective definition
Measurement Points
The first letter of the Point Identifier refers to the type of machine being monitored
P = PumpF = Fan
The second character represented by a number indicates the location on the machine
M = Motor
The third letter refers to the orientation of the sensor or the type of processing being
done by the analyser
H = Horizontal
V = Vertical
Measurement Points
The following example shows how the numbering system changes as you cross from
one component to the next
2
1
2
This changes when the next component is required for data collection
Locating Turning
Speed
Turning Speed
When the turning speed has been located, the software will re-calculate all the
frequencies to this exact speed.
Once the turning speed has been set, it is now possible to determine what is
Synchronous/Non-synchronous and Sub-synchronous energy.
Turning Speed
The spectrum is showing numerous
impacts appearing at different
frequencies.
Ex6
12
BFI - Example 6
-P2V PUMP OUTBOARD VERTICAL
Route Spectrum
30-Jan-96 15:14:51
OVRALL= 13.52 V-DG
RMS = 13.46
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2987.
RPS = 49.78
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency in kCPM
120
140
160
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
2.987
1.000
.115
EX3
1.0
0.8
0.6
P2V
Synchronous Energy
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
A route does not have to include all the equipment defined in that area
The order of the equipment in the route can differ from that of the database
Equipment can appear in more than one route BUT can not appear in the same route
twice
Route measurement points may not include all the points configured on the
equipment
Route measurement points do not have to be in the same order as they appear in the
database
Data is not stored at the route level but in the database with the measurement points,
there for routes can be deleted but will not loose data from the database
Frequency Bands
Frequency Bands
Imbalance
Frequency Bands
Imbalance
Misalignment
Frequency Bands
Imbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
Bearing Band 1
Bearing Band 2
Frequency Bands
Imbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
Bearing Band 1
Frequency Bands
Imbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
Bearing Band 1
Bearing Band 2
Fault Diagnostics
Each type of machine fault or defect reveals a specific vibration characteristic in the
spectrum and time waveform domain that distinguish that fault from another.
Simply by gaining a basic knowledge of these patterns and applying a few rules of
thumb we can start to analyse machine vibration and prevent machine failure.
This section concentrates the characteristics / patterns and rules that apply to diagnose
machine faults such as:
Imbalance
Misalignment
Resonance
Looseness
Gears
Sleeve Bearings
Belts
Unbalance
Imbalance
Imbalance (Unbalance) occurs when the centre of mass differs from the centre of
rotation.
If the centre of mass changes on the rotor due to a heavy spot or some other
influence then a centrifugal force is produced. This results in the centre of rotation
being offset from the centre of mass causing the vibration to increase at the rotational
frequency.
Unbalance
Primary Types
Static or Forced
Dynamic
Coupled
Imbalance (Types)
Static Imbalance
Couple Imbalance
Dynamic Imbalance
Static Imbalance
The radial vibration readings are the highest amplitudes with the axial vibration
generally much lower in amplitudes
Static Imbalance will show a 0 phase shift across the rotor (vertical to vertical or
horizontal to horizontal) and 90 phase shift from vertical to horizontal at the same
bearing location
The phase angle will change the same amount the heavy spot changes if the system is
linear
Dynamic Imbalance
Rule of thumb
Two unequal/equal heavy spots 180 apart in separate planes on the same rotor or
located at some spacing other than 180.Amplitudes will differ or will be related to the
location and amount of heavy spot
Unbalance
Causes of Imbalance
Improper Assembly
Wear to components
Very little axial vibration in case of static imbalance but high in case of overhung rotor
Similar amplitudes between horizontal and vertical plains for static imbalance and differ in case of
dynamic imbalance
Static unbalance
Dynamic/coupled unbalance
0-180 out of phase on the same shaft for dynamic & 180 out for coupled
Overhung rotors often have both force and couple unbalance each of
which may require correction
Eccentric Rotor
IF - Example 2
-F1H Fan Inboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
16-Sep-99 08:36:29
0
0
20000
40000
Frequency in CPM
60000
80000
Freq: 3000.0
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: 4.539
Ex2
IF - Example 2
-F1H Fan Inboard Horizontal
Waveform Display
02-Feb-00 15:13:51
0.8
PK = .5289
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2985.
RPS = 49.76
0.6
0.4
PK(+) = .8332
PK(-) = .8893
CRESTF= 2.38
Acceleration in G-s
0.2
-0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Changing the
units to velocity would reduce the amount of high frequency
-1.0
noise residing0 on 0.5the1.0waveform
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Revolution Number
The trend data is a good way of determining if there has been a change in condition,
as this plots amplitude against time (where time is in days)
14
Trend Display
of
1xTS
12
10
8
FAULT
6
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Date: 21-May-01
Time: 14:24:29
Ampl: 11.21
R M S V e lo c i ty i n m m /S e c
IF - Example 2
-F1H Fan Inboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
16-Sep-99 08:36:29
OVRALL= 4.58 V-DG
RM S = 4.56
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 3000.
RPS = 50.00
0
0
20000
40000
Ex2
1.0
60000
80000
Frequency in CPM
IF - Example 2
-F1H Fan Inboard Horizontal
3000.0
1.000
4.539
Waveform Display
02-Feb-00 15:13:51
0.8
PK = .5289
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2985.
RPS = 49.76
0.6
A c c e le r a t io n in G - s
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
0.4
PK(+) = .8332
PK(-) = .8893
CRESTF= 2.38
0.2
-0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Revolution Number
What would happen to the data if the following occurred to the fan?
Misalignment
Misalignment
When two mating shafts do not share the same collinear axis then misalignment is
induced.
Misalignment is one of the primary reasons for premature machine failure. The forces
that are exerted on the machine and its components when in a misaligned state are
greatly increased from normal operating conditions
Misalignment
Misalignment
Angular Where the shaft centrelines cross producing a 1xTs peak axially
Offset Where the shaft centrelines are parallel but they do not meet producing a radial
2xTs peak
Misalignment
Misalignment
Misalignment
High axial levels of vibration at 1xTs(often .5-2 times the radial readings)
High radial levels of vibration at1xTs and/or 2xTs, 3x & 4x may also be present
Repeatable period sine waveform showing 1, 2,3,4 clear peaks per revolution (Most likely M or
W shape)
The primary cursor denotes the 1xTs peak while the harmonic cursors
indicate a larger 2xTs peak. This type of data is common to that of Offset
Misalignment
Route Spectrum
15-FEB-93 11:04:18
5
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
0
0
10000
20000
30000
Frequency in CPM
40000
50000
Freq: 2925.0
Ordr: .983
Spec: 2.046
The primary cursor denotes the 1xTs peak while the data was taken in the
axial direction. This type of data is common to that of Angular Misalignment
B29 - PUMP NO 3
3601PUM003-M2A Motor Inboard Axial
Route Spectrum
04-Aug-04 08:49:05
0
0
30
60
Frequency in kCPM
90
120
Freq: 1.071
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: 5.966
40
Waveform Display
26-MAR-93 13:32:52
30
RMS = 17.00
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2996.
RPS = 49.93
20
Velocityin mm/Sec
PK(+) = 30.66
PK(-) = 26.81
CRESTF= 1.82
10
-10
-20
-30
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Revolution Number
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Misalignment
The waveform data shown above is predominantly showing one sinusoidal waveform
per revolution of the shaft.
B29 - PUMP NO 3
3601PUM003-M2A Motor Inboard Axial
0.8
Route Waveform
04-Aug-04 08:49:05
0.6
PK = .2596
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1071. (17.84 Hz)
0.4
PK(+) = .6277
PK(-) = .5683
CRESTF= 3.42
0.2
Acceleration in G-s
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
Revolution Number
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
Rev :
Ampl:
.680
-.306
Angular Misalignment
Parallel Misalignment
1x
2x
4x
Radial
Bent Shaft
Bearing Misalignment
Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not alleviate the
problem.
Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 180 phase shift side to side
or top to bottom
Looseness
Looseness
Looseness can be broken down into two main categories, Structural and Component
Structural looseness occurs when there is free movement within the machines support
structure causing excessive vibration. This can be a result of:
Loose support bolts to the components feet and supports
Cracked welds
Deterioration of the base itself.
Looseness
The 1xTs peak has been highlighted by the primary cursor and the relevant
harmonics have been displayed.
M4441
R M S V e l o c i t y i n m m /S e c
4.0
40
-G2H
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0
200
400
600
Frequency in Hz
800
1000
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
10.58
1.000
3.088
Multiple harmonics of 5xTs are shown indicating the impeller has come loose.
Ex 9
1.5
L1 - Example 9
-P2A Pump Outboard Axial
Route Spectrum*
17-Aug-01 08:52:02
OVERALL= 6.62 V-DG
RMS = 6.13
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2974. (49.57 Hz)
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0
40
80
120
160
Frequency in kCPM
Label: Centrifugal Pump - Medium
200
240
Freq: 14.88
Ordr: 5.002
Spec: .742
Displaying the waveform in velocity may help to show the random nonperiodic pattern.
M4441
1.2
0.8
PK(+) = .9797
PK(-) = .9874
CRESTF= 3.11
Acceleration in G-s
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time in mSecs
300
350
400
6
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
5
FAULT
4
ALERT
3
0
0
10
20
30
Days: 28-Feb-02 To 16-Apr-02
40
50
Mechanical Looseness
Phase analysis will reveal aprox 180 phase shift in the vertical direction
between the base plate components of the machine
Mechanical Looseness
Mechanical Looseness
Rotor Rub
Truncated waveform
Gear Boxes
Gear Defects
There are many different types of gears and gear combinations available for various
speed and power requirements.
Regardless of gear type they all produce the same basic vibration patterns and
characteristics when a defect is present
Spur Gears
Helical Gears
Bevel Gears
Spur Gears
Spur Gears are most commonly thought of when diagnosing gears. The teeth are
cut parallel to the shaft. These gears are good at power transmission and speed
changes but are noisier than other gear types.
High efficiency
Helical Gears
Helical Gears have teeth cut at an angle to the shaft. These gears are much
quieter than spur gears but due to the angular nature of the gear meshing, axial
thrust and therefore axial vibration is higher than those of spur gears
Sometimes to counter act the axial thrust these gears can be double up and
are known as Double Helical or Wishbone Gears
Quiet Operation
Bevel Gears
Bevel Gears are used to transmit power and speed to an output shaft
perpendicular to the drive shaft. These gears use a bevel design to transmit the
power better.
These gears are most commonly seen on right angle gearboxes (where the
input shaft is at 90 degrees to the output shaft)
Less efficient
Gear Analysis
The gear mesh frequency (GMF) refers to the frequency at which to mating
gears interact with each other and is the most commonly discussed gear
frequency.
However, GMF by itself is not a defect frequency. The GMF should always be
present in the spectral data regardless of gear condition. What is important is
the amplitude as this may vary depending upon gear condition or loading of
the gear.
Gears
Two mating gears will generate a frequency known as the GMF and will
show in the spectral data regardless of gear condition.
M4441
1.2
0.9
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
0.6
0.3
0
0
200
400
600
Frequency in Hz
800
1000
Freq: 386.98
Ordr: 15.00
Spec: .864
The GMF is simply defined as the number of teeth on a gear multiplied by its
turning speed
Example:
INPUT
Input
= 1490RPM
Gear 1
= 44 Teeth
Gear 2
= 71 Teeth
OUTPUT
or 65560/60 =
Calculating the GMF for gearboxes that have multiple trains use the following.
Example:
INPU
T
OUTPU
T
Input
1490RPM
Gear 1
teeth
Gear 2
teeth
= 15
Gear 3
teeth
Gear 4
teeth
= 19
= 21
= 54
OUTPU
T
Input
1490RPM
Gear 1
teeth
Gear 2
teeth
= 15
Gear 3
teeth
Gear 4
teeth
= 19
= 21
= 54
Gear Ratio 1
Speed Out
= 15 teeth / 21 teeth
= 1490 RPM x 0.714
= 0.714
= 1064.28 RPM
Gear Ratio 2
Speed Out
= 19 teeth / 54 teeth
= 1064.28 RPM x 0.351
= 0.351
= 374.47 RPM
GMF 1
GMF 2
INPU
T
= 1000
Gear 1
teeth
Gear 2
OUTP
teeth
UT
= 10
Gear 3
=teeth
0.25
Gear 4
teeth
0.25
= 10
= 40
Gear Ratio 1
= 10/40
Shaft 2 speed
= 1000 x
Gear Ratio 2
= 10/20
Shaft 3 Speed
= 250 x 0.5
GMF 1 = 1000 x 10
= 10000 CPM
GMF 2 = 250 x 10
= 2500 CPM
= 20
= 250 RPM
= 0.5
= 125 RPM
Sidebands are equally spaced frequencies in the spectral data that materialise
either side of the main GMF peak.
The sideband frequency spacing is equal to either the turning speed of the
input gear or the turning speed of the output gear.
Gears
The sidebands are equally spaced at intervals of 310 CPM. This is indicating
the gear that rotates at 310 RPM is the one that is worn or damaged.
X401A
1.0
RM S V e lo c ity in m m /S ec
0.8
GM
F
0.6
0.4
Sideban
ds
0.2
0
0
8000
16000
Frequency in CPM
24000
Freq: 18363.
Ordr: 59.23
Spec:
.564
Dfrq: 310.82
Gears can produce different types of waveforms, the one shown below is
indicating gear wear.
As the defective teeth come into mesh the noise generated increases showing
an increase in amplitude in the vibration data
X401A
1.5
1.2
PK = .4580
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 311. (5.19 Hz)
0.9
A c c e le ra t io n in G - s
0.6
PK(+) = 1.27
PK(-) = 1.13
CRESTF= 3.91
0.3
0
-0.3
-0.6
-0.9
-1.2
-1.5
0
3
Revolution Number
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Rolling element bearings have specific bearing failure modes that can be
observed in the spectral and waveform data.
Bearing frequencies differ from most other frequencies present within the
spectral data because unless the bearing has a defect there will be no
frequency peaks in the data relating to the bearing. Only if the bearing has
a defect will frequencies show in the spectral data.
Outer Race
Inner Race
CAGE (FTF)
Bearing defect frequencies are calculated based upon the geometry of the bearing
these calculations may include:
Contact angle
Defined within Machinery Health Manager there are over 100000 predefined
bearing stored in the CSI bearing warehouse
BEARINGS in CSI Warehouse:
c:\RBMsuite\SysData\CSI_CMP.WH ****************************************************
BRG ID Bearing Type
#B/R
FTF
BSF
BPFO
BPFI
12143
RHP 6218
11
0.418
2.967 4.598
6.402
24421
SKF 6313E
0.376
1.894 3.009
4.991
25372
SKF I-26313
19
0.433
3.568 8.219
10.781
Early stages of bearing wear may show better if viewed in acceleration in the
frequency domain
Followed by BSF
Followed by FTF
When a roller or ball defect is present from the start, BSF may well appear in the
spectrum WITHOUT any progression similar to these scenarios
Random HF to ultrasonic
5KHz to 60 KHz
Component Fn
30KCPM to 120KCPM
54K to 96K for most
Defect Frequencies
Failure Mode 1
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 1
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
120K
STAGE 1
ZONE
A
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
30K
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 2
STAGE 2
120K
ZONE C
BEARING
ZONE C
COMPON.
BEARING
NATURAL
COMPON.
FREQ.
REGION
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
120K
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 2
ZONE B
ZONE
ZONE B
A ZONE BEARING
DEFECT
BEARING
A
FREQ.
DEFECT
REGION
FREQ. REGION
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
Bearing f
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
30K
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 3
(First calculable frequency of the bearing towards the lefthand side of the spectral plot). This is classed as advanced
stages of bearing wear.
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
STAGE 3
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
7x
8x
30K
120K
30K
BPFI
BPFI
BPFO
ZONE
A
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 3
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
Bearing f
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 4
2X
3X
RANDOM HIGH
FREQ. VIBRATION
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
STAGE 4
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
7x
8x
30K
ZONE
A
120K
STAGE 4
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
1X
ZONE
A
Bearing
This can show significant G-levels in the time waveform. This value is trended
in the software as the Peak-Peak value
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Plain Bearings
Rotating elements are not used in sleeve (plain) bearings; rather the shaft rides on a
layer of lubricating oil inside the bearing journal.
Plain Bearings
As there are no rotating components in the bearing that produce high frequency
noise (force) there is no need to monitor a high frequency range. Usually 10 to 15
orders of turning speed will be sufficient.
Sleeve bearings have specific defects that contribute towards bearing failure,
these are:
Excessive clearance
Excessive Clearance
When there is excessive clearance between the rotor and the bearing then this will
have an effect on the system vibration. When the bearings have excessive clearance
then a looseness occurs.
The spectral data shown below is indicating a sleeve bearing with excessive
clearance.
TBT
16
Route Spectrum*
27-Jul-04 14:08:21
OVERALL= 2.93 V-DG
P-P = 22.71
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 941. (15.69 Hz)
12
0
0
6
Frequency in Orders
12
Ordr:
Freq:
Spec:
1.000
15.68
7.494
Oil Whirl
One of the major problems encountered with these types of bearings is the possibility of hydraulic instability of the shaft within
the bearing; known as oil whirl or oil whip.
Oil Whirl is a result of turbulent flow within the oil resulting in the oil pushing the shaft around of centre.
16
12
Route Spectrum*
27-Jul-04 14:08:21
0
0
6
Frequency in Orders
12
Ordr:
Freq:
Spec:
1.000
15.68
7.494
Oil Whirl
Whirl speed will lock onto rotor critical. If the speed is increased
the whip frequency will not increase.
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Peakvue
What is Peakvue
What is Peakvue?
Such as the Peak Value of an impact generated by a bearing defect in a time waveform
- (True Peak Value)
If you have a 21XX analyzer you have the capability to acquire Peakvue Data
The True Peak Value is obtained by concentrating on Stress Wave Analysis rather than
conventional vibration data.
These stress waves travel further than conventional vibration signals so a truer
indication of fault severity is obtained.
What is Peakvue
Stress waves accompany metal-metal impacting. These stress waves are short-term
(fractional to a few milliseconds) transient events, which introduce a ripple effect on
the surface machinery as they propagate away from the initial event.
If you think of a stone being dropped into a pool of water. The stone is the
initial impact generated by the fault. The effect of the stone being dropped
into the water cause a ripple on the surface of the water which, spreads
over a wide area.
Initial Impact
What is Peakvue
If a bearing has a sub-surface defect (early bearing wear), when a rolling element
passes over the defect it bends the race slightly and then as the rolling element
passes it restores back to its natural state.
This event causes a high frequency (1-50KHz) short duration stress wave.
Peakvue Processing
The detection of bearing and gear defects is one of the primary expectations of a
predictive maintenance program.
Peakvue stands for the Peak Value and is a technique that detects high frequency
stress waves generated from metal to metal contact, such as:
It is the detection of these high frequency stress waves that will aid with
analysis
In order to capture the stress wave signal the process requires the use of a filter to
remove all unwanted noise that can dominate the data
1. Conventional Vibration
Signals that are filtered from
the Peakvue Signal
Imbalance
Misalignment
Gears
Bearings
Resonance
After the filtering process what should remain is the high frequency stress wave activity that is occurring at the rate of the excitation such as from a bearing.
High
Full
Pass
Wave
Filter
Rectify
Digital
Peak
FFT
Impact
Detection
A comparison can be made of the sampling to show how data is collected through
both methods of data acquisition, normal and Peakvue.
The diagram below shows sampling of data using normal data collection.
Stress wave- this is
missed under normal
conditions
Instantaneous Samples
The diagram below shows sampling of data using Peakvue data collection.
Peakvue Samples
Peakvue measures the highest amplitude found in a stress waves (Pk Value) and
holds that data
The waveform data is then passed through a high pass filter to remove the
unwanted, low frequencies
This just leaves us with the high frequency impacting data (Peak) above the
machine noise level
The data is then brought back to fundamental frequency. (this allows analysis of
the data to be done quicker and easier)
(The waveform time length is determined by the lines of resolution divided by the f-max)
At minimum the surface should be clean (free of paint, dirt, etc.), stress waves are
easily attenuated.
Filters
Types of filter available
Filter Calculations
Filter Guidelines
Filters Options
One of the key elements in acquiring meaningful peakvue data is the selection of filters
Selecting the wrong type of filter will result in poor quality data
To much is filtered out (The stress wave is not allowed to pass through)
Each of the filters are designed to remove unwanted data out of the signal at the
appropriate levels
High Pass Filters remove all frequencies from the data below the filter setting but
allow the high frequency stress wave to pass through.
Looks for stress waves within a parameter defined by the filter setting. Frequencies
above and below this setting are removed from the data
Data passes
through filter
Data is filtered
out of the
signal
Data is filtered
out of the
signal
Filter Selection
To select the correct filter we need to consider the highest operational defect frequency
that we want to measure/detect. Then select the next available filter above that
frequency
E.g.
Filter Selection
We would then select the next available filter setting above the frequency
Available filters
500hz
20hz 150hz
1000hz
50hz 300hz
2000hz
100hz 600hz
5000hz
500hz 1khz
10000hz
20000hz
From our previous calculation of 1232Hz, What filter setting would we select?
Note: the meter will only allow you to select the next filter above
the specified Fmax.
Tip: use bandpass filters when the event of interest is the excitation of a structural
resonance, or the modulation of known frequencies such as gearmesh.
500hz Low speed machinery having <125hz. Bearing & gearing problems
1000hz Intermediate speed machinery (<2000 rpm) with gear mesh <300hz
10000hz High speed machinery with gear mesh up to 3000hz sensor must be
permanently mounted with a frequency response of 3db in the 30kHz or higher
range.
20000hz High speed machinery with gearmesh up to 6000hz. Sensor must be high
frequency and permanently mounted.
Tip: Use highpass filters when the objective is to detect stress waves which are emitted by metal
on metal impacting.
Consider:
Calculate what Filter setting would be required for both the motor and the fan
bearings?
Filters Available:
500 Hz, 1000Hz, 2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Motor.
BPFI = 4.855
Filters Available:
1000Hz 2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High
500 Hz, 1000Hz,
Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Fan
BPFI = 5.907
Filters Available:
500 Hz, 1000Hz, 2000Hz
2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High
Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Peakvue Data
Spectrums and Waveforms
Diagnostics Techniques
Peakvue - Spectrum
Peakvue - Spectrum
This is a Peakvue spectrum where high frequency stress waves are being detected
As stress waves are small in amplitude severity of the problem can be judged using
the time waveform
The waveform can resemble a spectrum as there is no negative half to the data
0.8
0.7
Route Spectrum
09-Jul-03 09:50:49
(PkVue-HP 1000 Hz)
OVERALL= 1.37 A-DG
RMS = 1.37
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1342. (22.37 Hz)
>NTN 6217
N=BPFO -OB
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Frequency in Hz
Route Waveform
09-Jul-03 09:50:49
(PkVue-HP 1000 Hz)
RMS = 2.97
PK(+) = 8.35
CRESTF= 2.81
8
Acceleration in G-s
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
12
16
20
Revolution Number
Label: Bearing Fault - BPFO NTN6217
24
28
32
36
Freq: 1.250
Ordr: .05587
Spec: .01367
Peakvue - Waveforms
Waveforms can be confused with spectrums, as the waveform is only plotting the peak
value and does not show a full wave.
EX 1
0.6
A1 - Example 1
-D3P Tail Roll Non D/S Peakvue
Analyze Waveform
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVue- HP 500 Hz)
0.5
PK = .0556
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 80.
RPS = 1.33
Acceleration in G-s
0.4
PK(+) = .5599
PK(-) = .0397
CRESTF= 14.25
0.3
0.2
0.1
4. Acceleration as
default units
-0.1
0
6
Revolution Number
Label: Easy
12
Peakvue - Diagnostics
However there are a few differences which can be a bit confusing at first, these are:
1. Do not try to locate 1xTurning Speed, as this is low frequency data and will be
filtered out.
Turning speed should be entered using the conventional spectral data.
2. Multiple harmonics are often present within a spectrum due to the way peakvue
samples the data.
These do not indicate Looseness
3. Spectral amplitudes are always low in amplitude but should not be used to judge
severity. Use the spectrum to diagnose the fault.
Peakvue - Diagnostics
Continued..
5. Ensure the same filter setting is used in both the spectrum and waveform.
Potential faults can be missed or overlooked if different filters are used.
6. Cage Defects show up well in peakvue data and is normally an indication the
bearing is under stress.
7. All low frequency faults are removed from the data and will not be seen in a
Peakvue spectrum and waveform
Imbalance, Misalignment, Looseness, Resonance - All Gone.
Peakvue - Diagnostics
EX 1
PK Acceleration in G-s
0.016
0.012
A1 - Example 1
-D3P Tail Roll Non D/S Peakvue
ANALYZE SPECTRUM
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVue- HP 500 Hz)
PK = .0484
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 80.
RPS = 1.33
0.008
0.004
3. Very Slow
RPM
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency in Hz
Acceleration in G-s
0.6
0.5
0.4
ANALYZE WAVEFORM
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVue- HP 500 Hz)
PK = .0556
PK(+) = .5599
PK(-) = .0397
CRESTF= 14.25
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
0
6
Revolution Number
Label: Easy
12
Freq: 7.284
Ordr: 5.463
Spec: .01018
Peakvue - Diagnostics
EX 1
PK Acceleration in G-s
0.016
F
ANALYZE SPECTRUM
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVue- HP 500 Hz)
PK = .0484
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 80.
RPS = 1.33
0.012
0.008
0.004
>NSK 6207
F=BPFI -IB
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency in Hz
Acceleration in G-s
0.6
0.5
ANALYZE WAVEFORM
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVue- HP 500 Hz)
PK = .0556
PK(+) = .5599
PK(-) = .0397
CRESTF= 14.25
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
0
6
Revolution Number
Label: Easy
12
Freq: 7.284
Ordr: 5.463
Spec: .01018
Alert Value
Fault Value
Inner Race
3.0g's
6.0g's
Outer Race
6.0g's
12.0g's
4.5g's
9.0g's
Cage frequencies
For machines running at speeds <900RPM recommended guidelines for setting initial
warning levels in the Peakvue time- waveform are as follows:
Peakvue Vs
Demodulation
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
What is Demodulation?
Demodulation looks for the ringdown that follows an impact, and tries to measure
how quickly it fades. In order to do this the Time Waveform has to be manipulated
in such away that the waveform data becomes useless
Initial Impact
Ringdown
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Peakvue samples the data much quicker enabling it to catch the very short
duration high frequency stress wave. It then holds that Peak Value throughout
its parameter.
Demodulation registers
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
The Process!
Standard Demodulation
High
Low
Full
Remove
Pass
Pass
Wave
DC
Filter
Filter
Rectify
Bias
A/D
Converter
FFT
Enveloping Stage
Full
Pass
Wave
Filter
Rectify
Digital
Peak
Impact
Detection
FFT
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Equipment
A conveyor system consisting of six rolls is driven by a motor/gearbox unit .
The motor speed is 1500RPM reduced through the gearbox giving the roller speed
to be 98.5RPM
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Due to the slow speeds Peakvue and Demodulation Filters were both set to
500Hz High Pass using 1600 Lines of Resolution
Ex1
0.016
0.07
Max Amp
.0490
Direct Comparison
Demodulation
Between the Two
Spectra
Peakvue Spectra
0.06
PK Acceleration in G-s
0.012
0.05
PK Acceleration in G-s
PK Acceleration in G-s
PvD - Example 1
PvD - Example 1
Ex1
-R1P Roller Bearing Drive End (18-Dec-01)
-R1P Roller Bearing Drive End
0.05
Spectrum
Analyze Spectrum
14:22:30
18-Dec-01 14:10:26
0.04
(Demod-HP
HP500
500Hz)
Hz)
(PkVue-
.0295
PK = .1238
0.03
100.0
LOAD == 100.0
RPM == 99.
97.
RPM
RPS = 1.64
1.62
RPS
0.02
0.04
0.008
0.01
Peakvue
0.03
0
18-Dec-01
14:10:26
0.02
0.004
Demodulation
0.01
18-Dec-01
14:10:26
0
0
50
50
100
100 in Hz
Frequency
Frequency in Hz
Label: Peakvue
500Hz
HighHigh
PassPass
Demodulated
500Hz
150
150
200
200
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Ex1
PvD - Example 1
-R1P Roller Bearing Drive End
Plot
Span
Demodulation
Waveform
Acceleration in G-s
1.0
18-Dec-01 14:22
Peakvue Waveform
-0.2
18-Dec-01 14:10
Revolution Number
Electrical Defects
Electrical Defects
Rotor
Stator
For most industrial applications the line frequency used to supply motors is
50Hz (Europe).
Therefore the frequency of concern for most electrical faults would be 100Hz
(2xLf [Lf=line frequency])
Ex7
0.6
Ex7 - Example 7
-M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
08-Nov-00 14:27:35
OVERALL= .5613 V-DG
RMS = .5607
LOAD = 100.0
RPM= 2967. (49.44 Hz)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
500
1000
Frequency in Hz
1500
2000
Freq: 100.00
Ordr: 2.023
Spec: .386
2xLf
Ex7
1.5
Ex7 - Example 7
-M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
Route Waveform
08-Nov-00 14:27:35
1.0
RMS = .5291
LOAD = 100.0
RPM= 2967. (49.44 Hz)
Velocity in mm/Sec
0.5
PK(+) = 1.50
PK(-) = 1.77
CRESTF= 3.31
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0
3
Revolution Number
Usually misalignment
would produce higher
force (Higher waveform
levels) than those from
electrical defects due
to the stress being
applied to the machine
Loose Connectors
This may be due to the rotor or stator bowing; due to heat build up.
The spectral plot below is indicating a 100Hz peak using Peakvue with a 1000Hz
filter.
Belt Defects
V-Belts
Timing Belts
Belt Defects
Belts are the most common low cost way to transmit power from one shaft to another.
Belt drives rely on friction between the belt and pulley to transmit power between drive and driven shafts
Belt Tension (tension on the belt holds it tightly against the sheave)
However, belts can be easily damaged by heat, oil and grease and since belts slip
with in the sheaves they can not be used where exact speed changes are
required (except for timing belts)
Belt Defects
Belt defects can be considered non-critical faults by many maintenance groups due
to the relative ease of replacement requiring minimum downtime.
But belt defects are a major contributor to the overall vibration of the machine
resulting in premature failure of other machine components.
There are many different types of belt drive systems. This section covers the most
commonly used types of belt in industry today.
V-Belts
V-belts are the most common type of belts used. They are V shaped in crosssection, this allowing the belt to wedge against the side of the sheave.
This design allows the belt to be run faster than most other type of belt
applications with power transmission efficiencies as high as 95%
Belt Defects
Timing Belts
These are flat belts with equally spaced teeth that mesh with notches on the
pulley. Timing belts are different from other belt drives as they do not induce any
slip.
Most commonly used where constant velocity and strict timing application is
required.
Belt defects, such as cracks, broken or missing pieces, hard and soft spots can generate vibration at
the turning speed of the belt (1xbelt) and harmonics
Due to the length of the belt in relation to the pulleys (sheaves) the 1xbelt frequency is subsynchronous and very often the 2xbelt frequency may be sub-synchronous as well
The predominant harmonic is typically the 2xBelt frequency and can be seen in
the radial plain in-line with the belts.
Just like two mating shafts, belt drive systems can also be misaligned in both angular
and offset directions.
When misalignment is induced into a belt drive system then the life of the belt is
significantly reduced as well as the overall vibration of the system increases.
Offset
Misalignment
Angular
Misalignment
Pulley misalignment results in high axial vibration at the shaft turning speed.
If the belt is also defected then 1xbelt frequency and harmonics may also
show in the axial direction
The fundamental belt frequency can be calculated using the following equation:
Where:
Ts = Turning Speed
PCD = Pitch Circle Diameter
Note: The PCD and belt length must be in the same units
A timing will belt will also have a specific frequency related to the number of teeth on
the pulley
Timing Belt Freq. = (Pulley Ts) * (# Pulley Teeth)
Motor RPM
= 1480 RPM
Pulley Diameter
Belt Length
= 2000mm
= 300 mm
The spectral data above is data taken of a motor from an Air Handling Unit.
The frequency highlighted by the primary cursor is showing the 1xTs of the
motor (1 Order)
1 x Belt Frequency
showing with
harmonics
Dominant 2 x Belt
Frequency
Resonance
Resonance
All assets contain natural frequencies that vary depending upon the stiffness and mass.
Resonance can be considered to be a vibration amplifier, that takes the force level of the periodic forcing
function and amplifies it; which significantly increases the movement of the asset.
Example of Resonance
The example shown represents the effect on amplitude of the forcing function when
in resonance.
Plot 3 shows the increase in amplitude of the forcing function when run at the
natural frequency this is resonance
Before
Excitation
Frequency
Resonance
Curve
Frequency
Amplified Signal
3
Frequency
Resonance
There are two factors that determine the natural frequency of an asset these are;
1.
2.
Stiffness The more rigid a structure the higher the natural frequency
Effects of Resonance
The ODS data is showing a steel frame structure deflecting at one corner in the
vertical direction due to a resonant condition.
Characteristics of Resonance
Characteristics of Resonance
Resonance is very directional in nature (Movement may be greater in one plain than the other)
Vastly different amplitudes of the forcing function from one direction to the other (between Horizontal and Vertical Rule of thumb ratio is 3:1 difference)
Resonance is very speed sensitive (small changes in speed can show large differences in amplitude of the forcing function)
Resonance can occur at any frequency but most commonly associated with the 1xTs
180 phase change occurs when shaft speed passes through resonance
Resolving a Resonance
There are a number of alterations to the system that can be made to resolve a
resonance condition.
However if structural changes are to be made you need to be careful you dont
excite another natural frequency once the change has been made?
Once you are sure you have a resonant condition it can be corrected by one of the
following methods:
Very often this type of data can be mistaken for Imbalance as this defect can also produce a high 1xTs peak.
However Imbalance is a centrifugal force and should show similar amplitudes in both radial plains where as resonance is very directional.
40 - No 1 GCTCompressor
M4551 -M2H Motor Inboard Horizontal
27
Route Spectrum
13-Feb-03 10:14:46
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0
500
1000
Frequencyin Hz
1500
2000
Freq: 24.72
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: 19.50
It is very clear that the amplitudes of the 1xTs peak are excessive in the horizontal direction
when compared to the vertical. This is a characteristic of a resonant condition.
M4551
40 - No 1 GCTCompressor
- Multiple Points (13-Feb-03)
24
20
Max Amp
22.0
16
12
8
4
0
M2V 10:15
RMSVelocity in mm/Sec
M2H 10:14
M1V 10:14
Point= M2H
13-Feb-03
10:14:46
RPM= 1484.
M1H 10:14
0
500
1000
Frequency in Hz
1500
2000
Freq:
Ordr:
Sp 3:
25.00
1.011
19.35
CAVITATION
Erosion of impeller vanes and pump casings may occur if left unchecked
If gap between vanes and casing is not equal, Blade Pass Frequency
may have high amplitude
FLOW TURBULENCE
Random low frequency vibration will be generated, possibly in the 50 2000 CPM range
SURGE
Analog
Analog integration integrates data in the time domain as collected , then performs FFT.
Digital
Accelerometer
Raw Signal
Amp
Integrator
1x, 2x
High Pass
Filter
Amp
Low Pass
Filter
Detector
P-P or RMS
AC
Output
Display
Reading
DC
Output
Time Signal
Absolute Vibration
with Free-Space
AC Signal
DC
Signal
Bandpass Measurement
Peak
RMS
Avg
Peak
to
Peak
Freq. = 1/Time
Freq. = Hz
= rev. per second
Detector
Apeak peak
ARMS
A peak
RMS
Apeak
T = averaging period
1
2
a
(t )dt
T 0
A peak
Apeak peak
RMS
2 * ARMS
Frequency Analysis
Types of filters:
f
High-Pass filters
Low-Pass filters
Bandpass filters
Anti-aliasing filters
Vibration Amplitude ?
Lower
Freq.
limit?
Upper
Freq.
limit?
Freq / Orders?
BW = Fmax /LOR
The signal that comes to the analyzer is analog signal. It must be digitally sampled by
the analyzer. This process is a variation of FFT and is known as DFT.
For DFT the waveform is re-created in the analyzer by digitally sampling and then
transformed into the frequency domain.
To under stand the FFT digital sampling process ,we must have the under standing of:
L.O.R
Fmax
Length of Waveform
1.1. Aliasing
Aliasing-- high
highfrequencies
frequenciesappearing
appearingas
aslow
lowfrequencies
frequencies
2.2. Leakage
Leakage-- Memory
Memorycontents
contentsforced
forcedtotobe
beperiodic.
periodic.
Can
Cangive
givediscontinuities
discontinuitieswhen
whenends
endsjoined
joined
3.3. Picket
Picketfence
fenceeffect
effect
Actual
Actualspectrum
spectrumsampled
sampledat
atdiscrete
discretefrequencies.
frequencies.
Peaks
Peaksmay
maybe
bemissing
missing
-ve
..give discontinuities
when ends joined
2nd Sample
Use Hanning Window
+ve
-ve
Measured
Spectrum
Waveforms
Waveforms
Just like the spectral there are certain patterns and characteristics to look for when
conducting waveform analysis.
Once the characteristics have been identified, the analyst can rule out certain faults
e.g: if the waveform is periodic faults like Looseness, Bearing defects, Cracks could be
ruled out.
2.Periodic
5.Asymmetry 6.Modulation
3.Impacts
7.Restrictions
4.Discontinuities
Waveform Analysis
Time - seconds
Waveform Analysis
Periodicity
Waveform Analysis
Periodicity
Waveform Analysis
Asymmetry
Waveform Analysis
Impacting
Waveform Analysis
Distortion
Vibration Analysis
Complex
Waveform Analysis
Electrical vs Mechanical
Waveform Analysis
Noise
Waveform Analysis
Extended time
Waveform Analysis
Extended time
Waveform Analysis
Low frequency
Waveform - Beats
WIDEBAND SPECTRUM
F1 F2
ZOOM
SPECTRUM
A beat is the result of two closely spaced frequencies going into and out of
phase
The wideband spectrum will show one peak pulsating up and down
The difference between the peaks is the beat frequency which itself will be
present in the wideband spectrum
Crest Factor
Introduction
The Crest Factor is equal to the peak amplitude of a waveform divided by the
RMS value. The purpose of the crest factor calculation is to give an analyst a
quick idea of how much impacting is occurring in a waveform. Impacting is
often associated with roller bearing wear, Cavitation and gear tooth wear.
In a perfect sine wave, with an amplitude of 1, the RMS value is equal to .707, and
the crest factor is then equal to 1.41. A perfect sine wave contains no impacting and
therefore crest factors with a value higher than 1.41 imply that there is some degree of
impacting
Crest Factor
Crest Factor
Comparison of 2 Waveforms
In below figures we can see an example of the use of the Crest Factor. The
waveform in figure on left has a crest factor of 3.01. The waveform in figure on right
has a crest factor of 1.61. The data in figure on left represents a machine with
serious rolling element bearing wear, and the crest factor is relatively high due to
the amount of impacting occurring within the bearing. The data in figure on right
represents a machine with an unbalance, but no impacting related to bearing wear.
Crest Factor
Conclusion
The Crest Factor is a quick and useful calculation that gives the analyst an idea of how
much impacting is occurring in a time waveform. This is useful information that is lost if
one is only viewing a spectrum as the FFT cannot differentiate between impacting and
random noise. Impacting in a time waveform may indicate rolling element bearing wear,
gear tooth wear or Cavitation. Quite often, the Crest Factor is trended over time in order
to see if the amount of impacting is increasing or not.
Advance Analysis
Rotor Dynamics
Types of bearings
Tilting Pad
elliptical
grooved
HP Turbine
LP Turbine
Generator
Exciter
Axial Thrust
(LVDT/Potentiometer)
(Dual-voting)
Radial Vibration
XY Probes
(at each bearing)
Phase
(once per turn)
HP Turbine
Thrust
Collar
Turning
Gear
Eccentricity
Casing
Expansion
Generator
LP Turbine
Y
Differential
Expansion Probes
(LVDT)
Prox. Probe
Exciter
Y
Thrust
Eccentricity
Case expansion
Differential
expansion
Radial vibration
Speed
Phase
Temperature
Valve position
Differential Expansion
6210
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Valve
Position
6410
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Eccentricity
6220
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Case Expansion
6410
Speed/Phase
6312
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Thrust
At least two thrust sensors, for redundancy, and for voting logic, are installed
to measure axial rotor position
HP
LP
IP
HP
GEN
EXC
IP
Thrust bearing
Thrust
failures
bearing
can failures
result inare
extremely
one of the
costly
most
repairs or even
machine replacement
catastrophic failures
Eccentricity
Eccentricity
Tach
HP
IP
LP
GEN
EXC
Case Expansion
Differential Expansion
Upon start-up, due to mass differences, the rotor expands at a different rate
than the case
By mounting the D.E. sensors on the case, and then measuring the position of
the rotor, the result is the difference in position of the rotor relative to the case
SHAFT
c
d = BEVEL ANGLE
a = DETECTED RANGE
c = INDICATED RANGE
Differential Expansion
Case Expansion
Tach
HP
IP
LP
GEN
EXC
Shaft Vibration
Rub
Bow
Imbalance
Looseness
Misalignment
Couplings
Runout
Fluid instabilities
Shaft cracks
Y
2
3
X
Machine Case
4
Emerson TIE Seminar May 2007
Displacement Probes
Extension
Cable
-24V
Com
Signal
Oscillator/
Demodulator
Connector
Probe
Also known as non-contact, eddy current probes, proximity probes
Integral
Cable
Mounting Blocks
API 670 gives examples of probe mounting blocks which employ a split clamp
housing design, as shown below. However, these can be a little difficult to use, so
alternative designs are available
10mm slots
for mounting bolts
Holes for
Mounting bolts
10
20
10
25
40
20
Clearance hole
for probe
60
60
Whatever the design, however, the mounting must be rigid enough so as not
to cause excessive vibrations. It can therefore be necessary to calculate the
natural frequency of the adapter. It should lie at least 10 times higher than
the machine rpm
Probe Installation
Internally Mounted Probes
Cable
Conduit
Cable
Ties
Cable
Conduit
Probe Holder
screwed into
Bushing
Reverse threaded
Probe
Probes can be mounted externally to the machine with the probe mounted through
the machine case or bearing housing, or they can be mounted inside the machine
and the probe leads exited through the machine case.
Probe Installation
Displacement Probes
The probe, integral cable, extension cable and oscillator/demodulator make up a tuned resonant
circuit.
In order to maintain a proper ratio between gap and voltage the various parts must be
calibrated and matched
Never indiscriminately substitute one cable type for another. The systems are matched and cable
length is critical
+
Linear Range
Typicall y 10 to 90 mils gap
(250 to 2250um)
Probe Sensitivity
= 200mV/mil
(8mV/um)
Gap
Gapping Probes
-10V DC
50mils
50mils
Probe cannot tell the difference between vibration and runout caused by defects such
as scratches, dents and variations in conductivity and permeability
Runout can be measured by observing shaft displacement at low speed (typically 300 to
600 RPM on a high-speed machine)
To avoid runout, ensure that the probe is always mounted to observe a smooth journal
surface
Coast
Down
Stop
Process
Variable
Steady
State 2
Bump
In the night
Slow
Roll
Coast Down
Stop
Process
Variable
Step
Up
(holding)
Turbo-machines
Vibration vectors
Slow roll vectors
Orbit / Mode shapes
Synchronous amplification factor
Anisotropic Stiffness
Rotor position
Heavy Spot
Turbo-machines
Orbits
Shaft centerline (ASCL plots)
Polar or Nyquist plots
Position plots (Acceptance region)
Bode plots (Amplitude & phase vs RPM)
APHT plots for crack detection
(Amplitude & phase vs Time)
Amplitude
Phase
Frequency
Position
Form / Shape
Precession
Casing
Vibration
Relative Shaft
Vibration
Displacement
probe
Shaft
Basic Principles
Force
Vibration =
Dynamic Stiffness
K (stiffness)
M (Mass)
Rotor
Mass
F spring
K
Support
Stiffness
Vibration Vectors
Shaft rotation
0o
ax
i
270
Vibration
Sensor
75 um pp
V axis
225
phase lag
180
ax
is
90o
225o
75 um pp
Monitoring Basics
6 mils
Change !!
ie. Increase by 2x
Precession
+
+
+
+
Blank = notch
Shaft
Rotation
Heavy spot
High spot
Shaft
rotation
+
Isotropic (Symmetric)
No Split Resonances
Circular 1X Orbit
Vibration not orientation dependent
Anisotropic (Asymmetric)
Resonances can be split
Elliptical 1X Orbits
Vibration depend on probe orientation
Slow Roll Vector is a constant (or very slowly varying) vibration vector that
represents the nondynamic vibration observed by the vibration sensor.
1X
Phase
0o
Phase Slope
Uncompensated
90o
270o
Compensated
Amplitude (p-p)
180o
Uncompensated
Compensated
Frequency (rpm)
Transient Information
Mode shapes
1st Mode
2nd Mode
HP Turbine
3rd Mode
LP Turbine
Generator
Exciter
Amplitude (pp)
Peak
Ratio
70%
SAFPR= a/b
Half-power Bandwidth
b
c d e
SAFhp= e-c/d
RPM
Amplitude (pp)
Phase
RPM
1st mode
Phase
2nd Mode
Heavy Spot
Amplitude (pp)
2nd mode
90o
270o
RPM
1 Mode
Heavy Spot
st
180o
1st mode
2nd mode
Bearing
Center
++
Shaft
Center
++
+
+
+
++
Overhung rotor
1st Mode
At rest
++
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
++
Shaft misalignment
CW
CCW
Shaft
Rotation
Shaft
Rotation
Driver
Driver
* However you will need to chose one direction and stick to it
Timebase Plots
Direct Orbit
Polar Plots
Bode Plots
APHT Plots
Trend Plots
XY Plots
Half Spectrum
Full Spectrum
Cascade
Waterfall
Sample 2
Filtering
Filtering
Window Function
Window Function
Detectors
Detectors
FFT
FFT
Also known as
Narrow band analysis,
constant bandwidth analysis
Half spectrum
Autospectrum
Spectras, Signature
/n =
Avg
FFT Spectrum 1
FFT Spectrum 2
FFT Spectrum
Sample 2
Sample 1
Raw Machine
Time Signal
Filtering
Filtering
+
Window Function
Detectors
FFT
Averaged Time Signal
Enhanced synchronous components while Non synchronous and
noise will be averaged out.
Reduced vibration effect from nearby machine.
Isolate specific machine components
TSA Spectrum
Amp
Rpm
Time
Hz
X Probe
Waveform
FFT
FFT
X Probe
half spectrum
Y Probe
half spectrum
Shaft
Rotation
Direction
Full Spectrum
Transform
1x
Reverse
Precession
-2x
-1x
+
Forward
Precession
2x
Orbits
AC, dynamic
motion or the path
of the shaft
centerline as seen
by the transducers
Orbits
The orbit represents the path of the shaft centerline relative to a pair of perpendicular, coplanar sensors.
Information:
Direct Orbits
Filtered Orbits
Compensated Orbits
Absolute Orbits
Unbalance
Indications of ...
MISALIGNMENT
Misalignments
With looseness
5:1 to 6:1
Up to 8:1
P. 8-8
8-8
Light Rub
Heavy Rubs
Rubs
Characterized by slight or
heavy truncations of the
orbit
A Parallel with
Waveforms
Rubs cause truncation both in the
time domain (waveform) and the orbit...
8-12
Oil Whirl
Similarity ?
Looseness or rub
Looseness
Rub
Whirl
8-14
Orbits
X
3
Average,
DC position
thefluid
shaft
Rotor should
rise inofthe
film
centerline
and load will influence final position
Should rest at the center and bottom of
Shaft centerline can help
the bearing at zero RPM
determine misalignment
Shaft motion
loading on shaft
Eccentricity condition
Shaft alignment visualization
Shaft at
running speed
+
+
+
+
++
++
+
Bearing
Clearance Circle
Shaft at rest
Information: