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CHAPTER 6
2. Electromechanical (or
actuators):
Strain Gauge (tolok terikan)
Electrical
signal
3. Electromagnetic (position
transducer):
Transducer
An electrical or
electronic, that converts
one type of energy to
another. Most
transducers are either
sensors or actuators.
Often, transducers are
equipped with signal
conditioning circuits to
convert physical quatities
2.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
Resistive position
transducers
Displacement transducers
Strain gauge
Temperature
Electrical
signal
2.1 Thermocouple
In 1821, T.J. Seeback discovered that an electric
potential occurs when 2 different metals are
joined into a loop and the two junctions are held
at different temperatures.
Seeback emf a voltage difference between
the two ends of the conductor that depends on
the temperature difference of the ends and a
material property.
If the ends of the wire have the same
temperature, no emf occurs, even if the middle
of the wire is hotter or colder.
Measuring
junction - "hot"
junctions
which is
exposed to
measured
Reference
junction - "cold"
junction
The other
junction
which is kept
T/C
Typ
e
Conductors
Positive
Conductors
Negative
Temp
Range
Sensitiv
ity
Nickelchromium alloy
Copper-nickel
alloy
Iron
Copper-nickel
alloy
Nickelchromium alloy
Nickelaluminum
alloy
-200C up to
1100C
41 V/C
Nickelchromiumsilicon alloy
Nickel-siliconmagnesium
alloy
can withstand
temperatures
in excess of
1200C
39 V/C
at 900C
-200C up to
68 V/C
+90C
-40C to +75C 55 V/C
2.1.4 Problem
A thermocouple was found to have linear
calibration between 0C and 400C with emf
at maximum temperature (reference junction
temperature 0C) equal to 20.68 mV.
a) Determine the correction which must be
made to the indicated emf if the cold
junction temperature is 25C.
b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the
thermocouple circuit, determine the
temperature of the hot junction.
2.1.4 Solution
(a)Sensitivity of the thermocouple
=
20.68/(400-0)
=
0.0517 mV/C
Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the
reference junction of 0C and is being used
at 25C, then the correction which must be
made, Ecorr between 0C and 25C
Ecorr = 0.0517 x 25
Ecorr = 1.293 mV
2.1.4 Solution
(b) Indicated emf between the hot junction and
reference junction at 25C => 8.92 mV
Difference of temperature between hot and
cold junctions = 8.92/0.0517 = 172.53C
Since the reference junction temperature is
25C,
hot junction temperature = 172.53 + 25 =
197.53C.
Metal Resistance
Straight line
1
R2 R1
o
(
)
R (T0 ) T2 T1
R2
R1
= resistance at T2
= resistance at T1
Example
R (T ) R (To )[1 1T 2 (T ) 2 ] T1 T T2
R(T) = quadratic approximation of
resistance at temperature T
R(T0)
= resistance at temperature T0
1 = linear fractional change in resistance
with temperature
2 = quadratic fractional change in
resistance with temperature
T = T - T0
Example
Solution
Nick
el
Tungst
en
Copper
Sensitivity
Response time
Temperature range
Material
considerations
Platinu
m
0.5
100 C
0.4
1 00C
0.3 to
2 to 3
4 to 5
Generally 0.5 to 5
seconds or more The
slowness of response is
due principally to the
slowness of thermal
conductivity in bringing
the device into thermal
equilibrium with its
environment.
2.2.3
The
operation
range
of
Temperature range
RTD depends on the type of
metal.
Example:
Disadvantages
2.3 Thermistor
Semiconductor resistance sensors
Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively
to temperature and their coefficient of
resistance is of the order of 10 times higher
than that of platinum or copper.
Temperature
resistance
Symbol
semiconductor
Disadvantages:
3.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Distanc
e
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
Resistive position
transducers
Displacement transducers
Strain gauge
Electrical
signal
Distanc
e
Electrical
signal
R2
Vo
VT
R1 R2
Example 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of
3 cm as shown in Figure 1. The total resistance,
RT of the potentiometer is 5 k and the applied
voltage VT is 5 V. When the wiper is 0.9 cm from
beginning end. What is the value of the output
voltage Vo ?
Ra
Figure 1
VT
x
x
VL
Rb
RL
Solution
0.9cm
R2
x5000
1500
3.0cm
R2
1500
VL VT
x5.0V 1.5V
RT
5000
Example 2
Using the same figure 1, calculate the
resistance value when the shaft stroke is
located at +0.85 cm and -0.38cm from midstroke.
By assuming that RL >> Ra + Rb, prove that
Rb
VL
VT
Ra Rb
Draw the output voltage vs. the displacement
Solution
0.85 1.5
1.5 0.38
R1
5
and R2
5
3
3
RbRL
VL
VT
RaRL RbRL RaRb
sinceRL Ra Rb ,RL canbeeliminated
fromtheequation
to forma simplerequation
:
Rb
VL
VT
Ra Rb
proven
!!
Example 3
Sketch of Output?
VL (V) versus Displacement (cm) should it
be linear or nonlinear?
Parameters?
Displacement range from 0 3 cm
Resistance range from 0 5 k
Output range from 0 5.0 V
4.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
o A
C
d
= dielectric constant
o = 8.854 x 1o-12, in farad per meter
A = the area of the plate, in square meter
d = the plate spacing in meters
5.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
5.1 Stress
Stress is a measure of the average
amount of force exerted per unit area. It is
a measure of the intensity of the total
internal forces acting within a body across
imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction
to external applied forces and body
forces. It was introduced into the theory of
elasticity by Cauchy around 1822. Stress is
a concept that is based on the concept of
continuum.
5.1 Stress
In general, stress is expressed as
5.2 Strain
Strain is the geometrical expression of
deformation caused by the action of stress
on a physical body. Strain is calculated by
first assuming a change between two body
states: the beginning state and the final
state. Then the difference in placement of
two points in this body in those two states
expresses the numerical value of strain.
Strain therefore expresses itself as a
change in size and/or shape.
5.2 Strain
The strain is defined as the fractional
change in length
l
strain
l
Strain is thus a unitless quantity
5.2 Strain
The strain is defined as the fractional
change in length
l
strain
l
Strain is thus a unitless quantity
L
From the equation of resistance,
R
A
R = resistance
= specific resistance of the conductor
material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square
meters
L
From the equation of resistance,
R
A
R increase
e - ppp
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