INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

INTRODUCTION
This course covers broad issues of the science
of industrial hygiene. Our discussion will be
presented in three parts. Part one will provide
an introduction to industrial hygiene, and cover
the history of industrial hygiene and the role of
the safety professional. Part two will cover
fundamental concepts in industrial hygiene,
OSHA and industrial hygiene, worksite
analysis, recognizing and controlling hazards,
and examples of job hazards that relate to
industrial hygiene.

INTRODUCTION

Part three will discuss the science of industrial

hygiene, the history of 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z
Toxic and Hazardous Substances, some key
OSHA requirements for toxic and hazardous
substances (Subpart Z), and OSHA employee
exposure and medical records requirements.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Familiarization with the history of industrial

medicine

Understand OSHAs role in industrial hygiene

Learn what job hazards are associated with

industrial hygiene

Understand the role of the safety professional

with respect to industrial hygiene

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand industrial hygiene concepts used

to determine worker exposure

Understand the purpose of Subpart Z of part

1910 - occupational safety and health
standards

Understand the OSHA requirements for

1910.1020 access to employee exposure and
medical records.

KEY TERMS
Aerosols: Aerosols are a form of a mist
characterized by highly respire able, minute liquid
particles.
Dusts: Dusts are solid particles .1 to 25
micrometers in diameter, generated by handling,
crushing, grinding, colliding, exploding, and
heating organic or inorganic materials such as
rock, ore, metal, coal, wood, and grain. Any
process that produces dust fine enough to remain
in the air long enough to be inhaled or ingested
should be regarded as hazardous until proven
otherwise.

KEY TERMS

Fibers: Fibers are solid particles whose length is

several times greater than their diameter, such as
asbestos.
Fumes: Are solid particles suspended in air that
are less than .1 micrometers in diameter. Fumes
are formed when material from a volatilized solid
condenses in cool air. In most cases, the solid
particles resulting from the condensation react
with air to form an oxide.

KEY TERMS

Gases: Gases are formless fluids that expand to

occupy the space or enclosure in which they are
confined. They are atomic, diatomic, or molecular
in nature as opposed to droplets or particles
which are made up of millions of atoms or
molecules.
Mists: The term mist is applied to liquid
suspended in the atmosphere. Mists are
generated by liquids condensing from a vapor
back to a liquid or by a liquid being dispersed by
splashing or atomizing.

KEY TERMS

Recommended Exposure Limit (REL):

An 8- or 10-hour time-weighted average (TWA) or
ceiling (C) exposure concentration recommended by
NIOSH that is based on an evaluation of the health
effects data.
Vapors:
Through evaporation, liquids change into vapors and
mix with the surrounding atmosphere. Vapors are the
volatile form of substances that are normally in a
solid or liquid state at room temperature and
pressure. Vapors are gases in that true vapors are
atomic or molecular in nature.

LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
This lesson focuses on the following topics:

The History Of Industrial Hygiene

The Role Of The Safety Professional

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating,
recognizing, evaluating, and controlling
workplace conditions that may cause workers'
injury or illness.
There has been an awareness of industrial
hygiene since antiquity. The environment and
its relation to worker health was recognized as
early as the fourth century BC when
Hippocrates noted lead toxicity in the mining
industry.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder, a
Roman scholar, perceived health risks to those
working with zinc and sulfur. He devised a
facemask made from an animal bladder to
protect workers from exposure to dust and lead
fumes.
In the second century AD, the Greek physician
Galen accurately described the pathology of
lead poisoning and also recognized the
hazardous exposures of copper miners to acid
mists.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
In the Middle Ages, guilds worked at assisting
sick workers and their families.
In 1556, the German scholar, Agricola,
advanced the science of industrial hygiene
even further when, in his book De Re
Metallica, he described the diseases of miners
and prescribed preventive measures.
The book included suggestions for mine
ventilation and worker protection, discussed
mining accidents, and described diseases
associated with mining occupations such as
silicosis.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Industrial hygiene gained further respectability
in 1700 when Bernardo Ramazzini, known as
the "father of industrial medicine," published in
Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial
medicine, The Diseases of Workmen.
Ramazzini greatly affected the future of
industrial hygiene because he asserted that
occupational diseases should be studied in the
work environment rather than in hospital
wards.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Industrial hygiene received another major boost in
1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg published a pamphlet on
occupational diseases and injuries among gold
miners.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
In England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a
result of his findings on the insidious effects of soot
on chimney sweepers, was a major force in getting
the British Parliament to pass the ChimneySweepers Act of 1788.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
In the early 20th century in the U. S., Dr. Alice
Hamilton, led efforts to improve industrial hygiene.
She observed industrial conditions first hand and
startled mine owners, factory managers, and state
officials with evidence that there was a correlation
between worker illness and their exposure to toxins.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
At about the same time, U.S. federal and state
agencies began investigating health conditions in
industry. In 1913, the New York Department of
Labor and the Ohio Department of Health
established the first state industrial hygiene
programs.

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
The U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of legislation relating to
safeguarding workers' health:

The Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966

The Federal Coal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

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In 1970, President Richard Nixon signed into law the Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), thus creating the OSHA
administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH).

LESSON 1

THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Today, nearly every employer is required to
implement the elements of an industrial
hygiene and safety, occupational health, and/or
environmental health program and be
responsive to the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) and the Act and
its regulations.
Industrial hygienists use environmental
monitoring and analytical methods to detect
the extent of worker exposure and employ
engineering, work practice controls, and other
methods to control potential health hazards.

LESSON 1

THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY

PROFESSIONAL
The role of the safety professional is to:

Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous

conditions and practices.

Develop hazard control designs, methods,

procedures and programs.

Implement, administer and advise others on

hazard controls and hazard control programs.

Measure, audit and evaluate the effectiveness of

hazard controls and hazard control programs.

LESSON 1

THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY

PROFESSIONAL
Anticipating, identifying and evaluating hazardous
conditions and practices involves using historical
data and experience to predict hazards in the
existing work environment.
Equipment should be evaluated before purchase for
known and potential safety and health hazards. Work
operations should be evaluated to determine the
severity of potential loss arising from existing or
potential safety and health hazards.
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Once the severity of existing and potential hazards has been determined,
priority should be given to the highest hazards, and resources allocated
to eliminate or control them.

LESSON 1

THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY

PROFESSIONAL
Developing, implementing, and evaluating
hazard controls involves eliminating hazards
using engineering controls as a first priority.
Where hazards cannot be eliminated they must
be minimized through the use of work
practices, personal protective equipment,
employee training, and evaluation of the
effectiveness of implemented controls.
It is important to communicate the hazards to
employees and supervisors using all available
resources.

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One of the most effective ways to create a successful health and safety
program is by incorporating safety performance into the goals of the
company.

LESSON 2

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
FUNDAMENTALS
This lesson focuses on the following topics:

OSHA And Industrial Hygiene

Worksite Analysis: Recognizing And Controlling Hazards
Examples Of Job Hazards

LESSON 2

OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Under the OSH Act, OSHA develops and sets
mandatory occupational safety and health
requirements applicable to the more than 6 million
workplaces in the U.S. OSHA relies on, among many
others, industrial hygienists and safety professionals
to evaluate jobs for potential health hazards.
Developing and setting mandatory occupational
safety and health standards involves determining the
extent of employee exposure to hazards and
deciding what is needed to control these hazards to
protect workers.

LESSON 2

OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
Industrial Hygienists
More than 40 percent of the OSHA compliance
officers who inspect America's workplaces are
industrial hygienists.
Industrial hygienists also play a major role in
developing and issuing OSHA standards to protect
workers from health hazards associated with toxic
chemicals, biological hazards, and harmful physical
agents. They also provide technical assistance and
support to the agency's national and regional offices.

LESSON 2

OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
OSHA also employs industrial hygienists who
assist in setting up field enforcement procedures,
and who issue technical interpretations of OSHA
regulations and standards.
Industrial hygienists analyze, identify, and
measure workplace hazards or stresses that can
cause sickness, impaired health, or significant
discomfort in workers through chemical, physical,
ergonomic, or biological exposures.
Two roles of the OSHA industrial hygienist are to
spot those conditions and help eliminate or
control them through appropriate measures.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
A worksite analysis is an essential first step that helps an
industrial hygienist or safety professional determine what
jobs are the sources of potential problems. During the
worksite analysis, the industrial hygienist or safety
professional measures and identifies exposures,
problem tasks, and risks.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
The most-effective worksite analyses include all jobs,
operations, and work activities. The industrial
hygienist/safety professional inspects, researches, or
analyzes how the particular chemicals or physical
hazards at that worksite affect worker health. If a
situation hazardous to health is discovered, the
industrial hygienist/safety professional recommends
the appropriate corrective actions.
Industrial hygienists/safety professionals recognize
that engineering, work practice, and administrative
controls are the primary means of reducing
employee exposure to occupational hazards.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
Engineering controls minimize
employee exposure by either reducing
or removing the hazard at the source or
isolating the worker from the hazard.
Engineering controls include
eliminating toxic chemicals and
substituting non-toxic chemicals,
enclosing work processes or confining
work operations, and the installation of
general and local ventilation systems.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
Work practice controls alter the manner in which a task is performed.
Some fundamental and easily implemented work practice controls include
the following:
changing existing work practices to follow proper procedures that
minimize exposures while operating production and control equipment
Inspecting and maintaining process and control equipment on a regular
basis

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
implementing good housekeeping procedures
providing good supervision, and
mandating that eating, drinking, smoking, chewing tobacco or gum, and
applying cosmetics in regulated/hazardous materials areas be
prohibited.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
Administrative controls include controlling
employees' exposure by scheduling
production and work tasks in ways that
minimize potential exposure situations. For
example, the employer might schedule
operations with the highest exposure
potential during periods when the fewest
employees are present.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
When effective work practices or engineering
controls are not feasible, or while such controls are
being instituted, appropriate personal protective
equipment must be used.

LESSON 2

RECOGNIZING AND
CONTROLLING HAZARDS
Examples of personal protective equipment are:

gloves
safety goggles
helmets
safety shoes
protective clothing
respirators.

To be effective, personal protective equipment must be individually

selected; properly fitted and periodically refitted; conscientiously and
properly worn; regularly maintained; and replaced, as necessary.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job hazards and

recommending controls, industrial hygienists/safety professionals must
be familiar with the hazards' characteristics. Potential hazards can
include air contaminants, and chemical, biological, physical, and
ergonomic hazards.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Air contaminants are commonly classified as either
particulate, gas or vapor contaminants. The most
common particulate contaminants include dusts,
fumes, mists, aerosols, and fibers.
Harmful chemical compounds in the form of solids,
liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes, and vapors
exert toxic effects by inhalation (breathing),
absorption (through direct contact with the skin), or
ingestion (eating or drinking).

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Airborne chemical hazards exist as concentrations
of mists, vapors, gases, fumes, or solids. Some are
toxic through inhalation and some of them irritate
the skin on contact; some can be toxic by
absorption through the skin or through ingestion,
and some are corrosive to living tissue.
The degree of worker risk from exposure to any
given substance depends on the nature and
potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and
duration of exposure.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and other living organisms that can cause acute
and chronic infections by entering the body either
directly or through breaks in the skin. Occupations
that deal with plants or animals or their products or
with food processing may expose workers to
biological hazards. Medical or lab personnel also
can be exposed to biological hazards.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

In occupations where there is potential exposure to
biological hazards, workers should practice proper
personal hygiene, particularly hand washing.
Hospitals should provide proper ventilation, proper
personal protective equipment such as gloves and
respirators, adequate infectious waste disposal
systems, and appropriate controls including
isolation in instances of particularly contagious
diseases such as tuberculosis.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Physical hazards include excessive levels of ionizing and non-ionizing
electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature.
In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time,
distance, and shielding are important tools in ensuring worker safety.
Danger from radiation increases with the amount of time one is exposed
to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation
danger.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Noise, another significant physical hazard, can
be controlled by various measures.
Noise can be reduced by
installing equipment and systems that have
been engineered, designed, and built to
operate quietly
enclosing or shielding noisy equipment

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

making certain that equipment is in good repair and properly

maintained with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced

mounting noisy equipment on special mounts to reduce vibration

installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Ergonomics
The science of ergonomics studies and
evaluates a full range of tasks including, but not
limited to, lifting, holding, pushing, walking, and
reaching.
Many ergonomic problems result from
technological changes such as increased
assembly line speeds, adding specialized tasks,
and increased repetition. Some problems arise
from poorly designed job tasks.

LESSON 2

EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Any of those conditions can cause ergonomic hazards such as excessive
vibration and noise, eye strain, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting
problems.
Ergonomic hazards are avoided primarily by the effective design of a job
or jobsite and by better designed tools or equipment that meet workers'
needs in terms of physical environment and job tasks.

LESSON 3

THE SCIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE
This lesson focuses on the following topics:

The History Of 1910 Subpart Z

Industrial Hygiene Concepts
Access To Employee Exposure And Medical Records

LESSON 3

THE HISTORY OF 1910

SUBPART Z
Soon after adoption of the OSH Act in
1970, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) promulgated
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for
many substances. Most of the PELs
contained in the Z-Tables of 29 CFR
1910.1000 were adopted from the Walsh
Healy Public Contracts Act as existing
Federal Standards. These in turn had
been adopted from the 1968 Threshold
Limit Values of the American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH).

LESSON 3

THE HISTORY OF 1910

SUBPART Z
Over time, OSHA concluded that existing
PELs were in need of revision based on
new evidence. It determined its first
priority was to modify existing PELs, and
establish PELs for substances for which
no exposure limits exist.

LESSON 3

THE HISTORY OF 1910

SUBPART Z
On June 7, 1988, OSHA proposed to amend and
expand the PELs for substances covered in the
29 CFR 1910.1000 Z-Tables and add new PELs
to address this deficiency.
The Proposal considered new PELs for 428
substances.
OSHA set out to amend 1910.1000. This
amendment reduced the PEL for 212 substances
already listed in the Z-Tables, and set PELs for
164 new substances currently not regulated by
OSHA. The effective date for the amended
standard was March 1, 1989.

LESSON 3

THE HISTORY OF 1910

SUBPART Z
The AFL-CIO disagreed with OSHA over the
new PELs and brought legal action against the
agency. In July 1992, the 11th Circuit Court of
Appeals in its decision in AFL-CIO v. OSHA,
965 F.2d 962 (11th Cir., 1992) vacated the
more protective PELs set by OSHA in 1989 for
212 substances, moving them back to PELs
established in 1971. The appeals court also
vacated new PELs for 164 substances not
previously regulated.

LESSON 3

THE HISTORY OF 1910

SUBPART Z
Currently, Subpart Z covers exposure
requirements for air contaminants (1910.1000
Tables Z-1, Z-2, and Z-3), asbestos, coal tar
pitch volatiles, 13 listed carcinogens, and other
listed hazardous chemicals and substances.
Subpart Z also has standards that address other
topics such as employee medical records, blood
borne pathogens, hazard communication, and
laboratory chemical exposure. The PELs are
once again at the limits set in 1971.

LESSON 3

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CONCEPTS
1910.1000 PELs are the exposure limits (also called threshold limit values
(TLV) for listed chemicals set by OSHA. 1910.1000 contains three tables
that list PELs for various substances.
Table Z-1 contains limits for air contaminants. Table Z-2 contains limits for
twenty-one (21) additional substances. Table Z-3 contains exposure limits
for mineral dusts. If employee exposure exceeds the limits set in tables,
engineering controls, administrative controls, or personal protective
equipment must be implemented to maintain worker exposure below the
indicated limits.

LESSON 3

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CONCEPTS
PEL concentrations in the Z Tables are given in parts per million (ppm),
milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m), or million of particles per cubic foot
(mppcf). There is also a measure for fiber concentration: fibers per cubic
centimeter (f/cc).
Permissible exposure limits (PELs) are generally given in terms of Time
Weighted Averages (TWAs). The limits set forth in the OSHA tables are 8hour time weighted averages, and are calculated as follows:

LESSON 3

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CONCEPTS
The cumulative exposure for an 8-hour work shift is computed as follows:
(E = C(a)T(a) + C(b)T(b) + . . . C(n)T(n)) divided by 8
Where:
E is the equivalent exposure for the working shift.
C is the concentration during any period of time T where the
concentration remains constant.
T is the duration in hours of the exposure at the concentration C.
The value of E cannot exceed the 8-hour time weighted average
specified in Subpart Z or 29 CFR Part 1910 for the substance involved.

LESSON 3

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CONCEPTS
To illustrate the formula, assume that Substance A has an 8-hour time
weighted average limit of 100 ppm noted in Table Z-1. Assume that an
employee is subject to the following exposure:
Two hours exposure at 150 ppm
Two hours exposure at 75 ppm
Four hours exposure at 50 ppm

LESSON 3

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
CONCEPTS
Substituting this information in the formula, we have
(2 X 150 + 2 X 75 + 4 X 50) divided by 8 = 81.25 ppm
Since 81.25 ppm is less than 100 ppm, the 8-hour time weighted
average limit, the exposure is acceptable.
Other TLVs include Ceiling concentrations (C) and Short Term Exposure
Limits (STEL)

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS

Scope
Employers in general industry and the maritime and construction industries
must provide records access to all employees exposed to toxic substances
and harmful physical agents, their employee representatives, health
professionals, and OSHA. The rule does not require creation of any records,
only preservation. Access means the right to examine and copy records.

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS
Access rules
When requested, employers must provide medical records promptly,
generally within 15 working days. They must provide a date for release of
the information and an explanation of the delay should it take longer to
process the request. Employers are to inform their workers initially and at
least annually of their rights to access to medical and exposure records.

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS
OSHA may obtain personal medical records promptly without the written
consent of the subject employees, but will adhere to rules of agency
practice and procedure governing OSHA access to employee medical
records contained in Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1913.10.

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS
Records and retention rates
The rule covers records of employee exposure to toxic substances, harmful
physical agents and employee personal medical records. Exposure records
must be maintained for 30 years and medical records for the duration of
employment plus 30 years. First aid records and experimental toxicological
research records are excluded from the 30-year retention requirements.

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS
If a company maintains a chemical inventory or set of material safety data
sheets, it need not retain production records, shipping records, invoices,
batch cards or other similar documents. Biological (such as blood or urine)
monitoring results, except those pertaining to alcohol or drugs, are to be
retained. Personal medical records for short-term employees (less than
one year) do not have to be retained if they are provided to the employee
on termination.
Employers need not copy X-rays that may require viewing on site or at
some other suitable location. All X-rays, except chest X-rays, may be
microfilmed for records storage.

LESSON 3

EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND

MEDICAL RECORDS
In a medical emergency, an employer must immediately disclose the
specific chemical identity of a toxic substance to a treating physician or
nurse when needed for emergency or first aid treatment. In the case of
Trade Secret Protection, the employer may obtain a statement of need
and a confidentiality agreement as soon as circumstances permit